Anti-viral properties -
A second approach is to target the processes that synthesize virus components after a virus invades a cell. One way of doing this is to develop nucleotide or nucleoside analogues that look like the building blocks of RNA or DNA , but deactivate the enzymes that synthesize the RNA or DNA once the analogue is incorporated.
This approach is more commonly associated with the inhibition of reverse transcriptase RNA to DNA than with "normal" transcriptase DNA to RNA.
The first successful antiviral, aciclovir , is a nucleoside analogue, and is effective against herpesvirus infections. The first antiviral drug to be approved for treating HIV, zidovudine AZT , is also a nucleoside analogue.
An improved knowledge of the action of reverse transcriptase has led to better nucleoside analogues to treat HIV infections. One of these drugs, lamivudine , has been approved to treat hepatitis B, which uses reverse transcriptase as part of its replication process.
Researchers have gone further and developed inhibitors that do not look like nucleosides, but can still block reverse transcriptase. Another target being considered for HIV antivirals include RNase H —which is a component of reverse transcriptase that splits the synthesized DNA from the original viral RNA.
Another target is integrase , which integrate the synthesized DNA into the host cell genome. Examples of integrase inhibitors include raltegravir , elvitegravir , and dolutegravir.
Once a virus genome becomes operational in a host cell, it then generates messenger RNA mRNA molecules that direct the synthesis of viral proteins.
Production of mRNA is initiated by proteins known as transcription factors. Several antivirals are now being designed to block attachment of transcription factors to viral DNA. Genomics has not only helped find targets for many antivirals, it has provided the basis for an entirely new type of drug, based on "antisense" molecules.
These are segments of DNA or RNA that are designed as complementary molecule to critical sections of viral genomes, and the binding of these antisense segments to these target sections blocks the operation of those genomes.
A phosphorothioate antisense drug named fomivirsen has been introduced, used to treat opportunistic eye infections in AIDS patients caused by cytomegalovirus , and other antisense antivirals are in development. An antisense structural type that has proven especially valuable in research is morpholino antisense.
Yet another antiviral technique inspired by genomics is a set of drugs based on ribozymes , which are enzymes that will cut apart viral RNA or DNA at selected sites.
In their natural course, ribozymes are used as part of the viral manufacturing sequence, but these synthetic ribozymes are designed to cut RNA and DNA at sites that will disable them.
A ribozyme antiviral to deal with hepatitis C has been suggested, [28] and ribozyme antivirals are being developed to deal with HIV.
This is part of a broader effort to create genetically modified cells that can be injected into a host to attack pathogens by generating specialized proteins that block viral replication at various phases of the viral life cycle. Interference with post translational modifications or with targeting of viral proteins in the cell is also possible.
Some viruses include an enzyme known as a protease that cuts viral protein chains apart so they can be assembled into their final configuration. HIV includes a protease, and so considerable research has been performed to find " protease inhibitors " to attack HIV at that phase of its life cycle.
Protease inhibitors have also been seen in nature. A protease inhibitor was isolated from the shiitake mushroom Lentinus edodes. Most viruses produce long dsRNA helices during transcription and replication.
In contrast, uninfected mammalian cells generally produce dsRNA helices of fewer than 24 base pairs during transcription. DRACO double-stranded RNA activated caspase oligomerizer is a group of experimental antiviral drugs initially developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
In cell culture, DRACO was reported to have broad-spectrum efficacy against many infectious viruses, including dengue flavivirus , Amapari and Tacaribe arenavirus , Guama bunyavirus , H1N1 influenza and rhinovirus , and was additionally found effective against influenza in vivo in weanling mice.
It was reported to induce rapid apoptosis selectively in virus-infected mammalian cells, while leaving uninfected cells unharmed. The procaspases transactivate via cleavage, activate additional caspases in the cascade, and cleave a variety of cellular proteins, thereby killing the cell.
Rifampicin acts at the assembly phase. The final stage in the life cycle of a virus is the release of completed viruses from the host cell, and this step has also been targeted by antiviral drug developers.
Two drugs named zanamivir Relenza and oseltamivir Tamiflu that have been recently introduced to treat influenza prevent the release of viral particles by blocking a molecule named neuraminidase that is found on the surface of flu viruses, and also seems to be constant across a wide range of flu strains.
Rather than attacking viruses directly, a second category of tactics for fighting viruses involves encouraging the body's immune system to attack them.
Some antivirals of this sort do not focus on a specific pathogen, instead stimulating the immune system to attack a range of pathogens. One of the best-known of this class of drugs are interferons , which inhibit viral synthesis in infected cells.
A more specific approach is to synthesize antibodies , protein molecules that can bind to a pathogen and mark it for attack by other elements of the immune system. Once researchers identify a particular target on the pathogen, they can synthesize quantities of identical "monoclonal" antibodies to link up that target.
A monoclonal drug is now being sold to help fight respiratory syncytial virus in babies, [39] and antibodies purified from infected individuals are also used as a treatment for hepatitis B. Antiviral resistance can be defined by a decreased susceptibility to a drug caused by changes in viral genotypes.
In cases of antiviral resistance, drugs have either diminished or no effectiveness against their target virus. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC inclusively recommends anyone six months and older to get a yearly vaccination to protect them from influenza A viruses H1N1 and H3N2 and up to two influenza B viruses depending on the vaccination.
However, vaccines are preventative and are not generally used once a patient has been infected with a virus. Additionally, the availability of these vaccines can be limited based on financial or locational reasons which can prevent the effectiveness of herd immunity, making effective antivirals a necessity.
The three FDA-approved neuraminidase antiviral flu drugs available in the United States, recommended by the CDC, include: oseltamivir Tamiflu , zanamivir Relenza , and peramivir Rapivab.
Currently, neuraminidase inhibitors NAIs are the most frequently prescribed antivirals because they are effective against both influenza A and B.
However, antiviral resistance is known to develop if mutations to the neuraminidase proteins prevent NAI binding. Furthermore, a study published in in Nature Biotechnology emphasized the urgent need for augmentation of oseltamivir stockpiles with additional antiviral drugs including zanamivir.
This finding was based on a performance evaluation of these drugs supposing the H1N1 'Swine Flu' neuraminidase NA were to acquire the oseltamivir-resistance HisTyr mutation, which is currently widespread in seasonal H1N1 strains.
The genetic makeup of viruses is constantly changing, which can cause a virus to become resistant to currently available treatments.
The mechanisms for antiviral resistance development depend on the type of virus in question. RNA viruses such as hepatitis C and influenza A have high error rates during genome replication because RNA polymerases lack proofreading activity.
DNA viruses are therefore less error prone, are generally less diverse, and are more slowly evolving than RNA viruses. Billions of viruses are produced every day during the course of an infection, with each replication giving another chance for mutations that encode for resistance to occur.
Multiple strains of one virus can be present in the body at one time, and some of these strains may contain mutations that cause antiviral resistance. Antiviral resistance has been reported in antivirals for herpes, HIV, hepatitis B and C, and influenza, but antiviral resistance is a possibility for all viruses.
National and international surveillance is performed by the CDC to determine effectiveness of the current FDA-approved antiviral flu drugs. WHO further recommends in-depth epidemiological investigations to control potential transmission of the resistant virus and prevent future progression.
If a virus is not fully wiped out during a regimen of antivirals, treatment creates a bottleneck in the viral population that selects for resistance, and there is a chance that a resistant strain may repopulate the host.
The most commonly used method for treating resistant viruses is combination therapy, which uses multiple antivirals in one treatment regimen.
This is thought to decrease the likelihood that one mutation could cause antiviral resistance, as the antivirals in the cocktail target different stages of the viral life cycle. This minimizes exposure to unnecessary antivirals and ensures that an effective medication is being used.
This may improve patient outcomes and could help detect new resistance mutations during routine scanning for known mutants. While most antivirals treat viral infection, vaccines are a preemptive first line of defense against pathogens.
Vaccination involves the introduction i. via injection of a small amount of typically inactivated or attenuated antigenic material to stimulate an individual's immune system.
The immune system responds by developing white blood cells to specifically combat the introduced pathogen, resulting in adaptive immunity. Vaccination policy in the United States consists of public and private vaccination requirements.
For instance, public schools require students to receive vaccinations termed "vaccination schedule" for viruses and bacteria such as diphtheria , pertussis , and tetanus DTaP , measles , mumps , rubella MMR , varicella chickenpox , hepatitis B , rotavirus , polio , and more.
Private institutions might require annual influenza vaccination. Despite their successes, in the United States there exists plenty of stigma surrounding vaccines that cause people to be incompletely vaccinated. These "gaps" in vaccination result in unnecessary infection, death, and costs.
Although the American Academy of Pediatrics endorses universal immunization, [65] they note that physicians should respect parents' refusal to vaccinate their children after sufficient advising and provided the child does not face a significant risk of infection.
Parents can also cite religious reasons to avoid public school vaccination mandates, but this reduces herd immunity and increases risk of viral infection. Vaccines boosts the body's immune system to better attack viruses in the "complete particle" stage, outside of the organism's cells.
Traditional approaches to vaccine development include an attenuated a live weakened or inactivated killed version of the virus. Attenuated pathogens, in very rare cases, can revert to a pathogenic form.
Inactivated vaccines have no possibility of introducing the disease they are given against; on the other hand, the immune response may not always occur or it may be short lived, requiring several doses.
Recently, " subunit " vaccines have been devised containing only the antigenic parts of the pathogen. This makes the vaccine "more precise" but without guarantee that immunological memory will be formed in the correct manner.
Vaccines are very effective on stable viruses but are of limited use in treating a patient who has already been infected. They are also difficult to successfully deploy against rapidly mutating viruses, such as influenza the vaccine for which is updated every year and HIV.
Antiviral drugs are particularly useful in these cases. Following the HPTN study and PARTNER study, there is significant evidence to demonstrate that antiretroviral drugs inhibit transmission when the HIV virus in the person living with HIV has been undetectable for 6 months or longer. Guidelines regarding viral diagnoses and treatments change frequently and limit quality care.
Furthermore, in local health departments LHDs with access to antivirals, guidelines may be unclear, causing delays in treatment.
Overall, national guidelines, regarding infection control and management, standardize care and improve healthcare worker and patient safety. Guidelines, such as those provided by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC during the flu pandemic caused by the H1N1 virus , recommend, among other things, antiviral treatment regimens, clinical assessment algorithms for coordination of care, and antiviral chemoprophylaxis guidelines for exposed persons.
Public Health Emergency Preparedness initiatives are managed by the CDC via the Office of Public Health Preparedness and Response. Also managed by the CDC, the Strategic National Stockpile SNS consists of bulk quantities of medicines and supplies for use during such emergencies.
During the H1N1 pandemic in —, guidelines for SNS use by local health departments was unclear, revealing gaps in antiviral planning. The gap made it difficult to create plans and policies for their use and future availabilities, causing delays in treatment. Contents move to sidebar hide.
Door handles, taps and other frequently touched hard surfaces could similarly benefit from metal coatings such as copper. An alternative way is to generate nanostructured topography on industrially relevant surfaces that can physically inactivate viruses.
Recently, Hasan et al. With excellent durability, this strategy could be potentially used in hospitals and other public areas. The aim of this review is to provide an overview and better understanding of the current state of knowledge, research direction and practices in the area of antiviral materials and coatings.
We focus on the reported mechanisms of action. The repertoire of materials with antiviral and antimicrobial properties is large and varied. Adding to that further possibilities of design and engineering of new chemistries, provides many options. Antimicrobial properties of these materials are widely studied but reports on antiviral properties are much fewer and this is a gap that should be considered.
As can be seen, there is a significant resource of existing literature on viral persistence on different surfaces. However, a quantitative or even semi-quantitative analysis of the data is hampered by a lack of equivalence in the ways that persistence is measured or a consistent set of virus classes that are used to challenge the materials.
There are existing ISO, ASTM, US Federal and EU standards on the measurement of antiviral activity but a lack of use in the literature. The most frequently used method is the end point dilution assay TCID 50 , though as noted earlier, the results are often difficult to interpret and are subjective.
There appears to be a compelling need for systematic studies of different material types, challenged with specific virus strains of representative classes enveloped, non-enveloped etc. using quantitative approaches. Furthermore, a reference standard surface, that could be used in an intercomparison study, would greatly benefit the community by providing a base-line of repeatability within a lab and replicability between laboratories.
We believe that such studies would considerably increase the value and re-use of data created in future studies. Copper is one of the most effective and simplest of the materials in this review and would appear to be easily integrated, e. Touch-screen displays could have thin films containing copper.
However, increased exposure to copper would need careful consideration in terms of other health effects. Indeed, unwanted environmental effects caused by leaching may be one of the most significant issues to be considered in the deployment of antiviral surfaces.
Natural products may provide the right balance of antiviral efficacy and environmental impact. It is clear that material science can play a very important role in the development of conceptual and practical measures to slow infectious outbreaks. Both existing and innovative broad-spectrum antiviral strategies should be considered, which could contribute to the challenge and preparedness of future viral pandemics.
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RT, reverse transcriptase; EGCG, epigallocatechingallate; and gp, glycoprotein HBV is a unique type of virus that attacks the hepatocytes resulting severe liver infection. Its genomic material is partially double-stranded DNA, commonly known as relaxed-circular DNA or rcDNA.
The multiplication process of this virus is distinctive which involves complex and sequential stages Grimm et al. The genomic rcDNA gets translocated to nucleus where host proteins and enzymes repair it by covalent ligation of DNA double strands and form complementary closed circular DNA or ccDNA.
It is a highly stable molecular template that exhibits capability to modulate the progression status of severe and barely curable chronic liver infection.
After that, the transcription of ccDNA generates subgenomic RNA sgRNA and pre-genomic RNA pgRNA. Bioactive molecules, such as EGCG and curcumin have been reported to inhibit this transcription step leading to reduction of viral load Xu et al.
FIGURE 3. Impact of bioactive metabolites derived from Bangladeshi medicinal plants on molecular targets of HBV. This multiplication cycle proceeds by translation and processing of viral antigen particles from sgRNA. Hepatitis-B surface antigen HbsAg and hepatitis-B e antigen HbeAg are predominantly used screening parameter to assay anti-HBV activity.
HbsAg is essential for viral assembly whereas HbeAg is a circulating protein in blood of infected patients during active replication stage. This HbeAg level is an indicator of predicting that the patient is whether infectious to others or not Grimm et al.
Besides, EGCG diminished the expression of these antigens significantly Xu et al. Alternatively, the pgRNA undergoes encapsidation followed by a complex process of reverse transcription to form single strand - DNA or ssDNA.
This step was inhibited by EGCG and kaempferol in various investigations Xu et al. Plant metabolites possess multiple therapeutic activities.
They can produce synergistic effects resulting superior therapeutic outcomes. Along with numerous advantages, a number of challenges must be overcome during drug discovery process. The major hindrance is drugability of the plant metabolites.
Pharmacokinetic ADME absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination parameters are the crucial factors that affect the drugability of a plant-derived compound. Fortunately, advancement of novel drug delivery systems and nanotechnologies enlighten the hope of developing plant metabolites as potential drugs.
Already a number of plant metabolites have been formulated as novel drug delivery systems Table 5. Other impending challenges are a procurement and authentication of plant materials; b application of high-throughput screening bioassays and scale-up of bioactive lead compounds; and c complexity in isolation and purification processes Jachak and Saklani, Moreover, the toxicities of plant metabolites are sometimes overlooked during laboratory based assays which are observed during clinical trials.
Isolation, purification, and bioassay of pure plant-derived compounds are relatively complex, time consuming and required so much efforts, thus failure of drug development at clinical trial phases are very disappointing Phu et al. TABLE 5. Effective delivery systems for oral delivery of plant metabolites with antiviral activity Ben-Shabat et al.
In this review, we have summarized the overview of 46 antiviral medicinal plants from 25 families cultivated and originated in Bangladesh. Moreover, bioactive phytochemicals are not profiled for all of these plants.
From the available data regarding these plants, a total of 79 compounds with antiviral activities have been found. Amongst them, about 37 bioactive compounds have significant antiviral activities accompanied by mechanistic explanation.
These compounds showed potential inhibitory activities against SARS-CoV-2, HIV, HBV, HCV, HSV, DENV, influenza virus and so others. EGCG, oleanolic acid, hesperidin, quercetin, curcumin, kaempferol, and andrographolide showed activity against multiple viruses. Adequate studies are not available regarding structure activity relationship of these bioactive compounds which are crucial to develop drugs active against fatal viruses.
Thus, for the development of desired antiviral drug molecules from these medicinal plants, further investigations should be necessary to unveil the mechanism of antiviral activities of the isolated bioactive metabolites along with enlightenment of the structure activity relationship.
SB: Generated the idea and contributed to writing the manuscript followed by editing; KM, AA, and RB: Contributed to writing the most important sections of the manuscript including the drawing of the figures; MA: Contributed to the dissemination of ideas on viral diseases and selection of Bangladeshi herbal plants to be used with evidence for writing the manuscript.
He also played a vital role in editing the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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An Anti-viral properties is Antl-viral substance that Anti-viral properties against viruses and propeeties their lroperties. A doctor may prescribe antiviral medications to help treat a viral Anti-viral properties, and Setting up meals timings can use Amti-viral products to prevent the growth and spread of viruses. Any substance that slows the replication of viruses is an antiviral. Viruses are microscopic organisms that can infect animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria. Researchers suggest that viruses are the most abundant biological entity on the planet. The structure of viruses means that only antivirals can eliminate them — other medications, including antibiotics, are not effective.Did Fueling your run know that there are more than different viruses that can cause infections, including the common cold, the flu, hepatitis, mononucleosis and HIV? Luckily, there are a prroperties of powerful antiviral peoperties that boost the immune lropertiesreduce inflammation and fight infections.
A virus is a Anti-viral properties Anti-virzl agent that can only replicate inside the living cells of other organisms. Anti-virzl can infect all Anti-virral of life forms — humans, animals, plants and microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea.
There are many ways that a virus spreads. Anti-virall animals, Anti-vral virus is carried by blood-sucking insects.
Some viruses, like influenza, are spread by coughing and sneezing. Viruses like viral gastroenteritis infectious diarrhea are transmitted by the fecal—oral route which Anti-vjral a result of poor sanitation and are passed from person to Anti-viral properties properries contact or enter the body prpoerties food and pdoperties.
Antiviral herbs inhibit the development of viruses. Many of poperties Anti-viral properties antiviral herbs boost AAnti-viral immune system, which allows the body to attack viral pathogens.
This can be even better than attacking specific pathogens, which antiviral drugs are designed to Polyphenols and immune system support, because pathogens mutate Anti-virall time and become less propertis to treatment.
Annti-viral only do antiviral herbs fight propedties infections, boost the Anti-viiral system and work as flu natural remedies, but they have a number of other health BCAAs for women, such as cardiovascular, digestive Anti-viral properties anti-inflammatory Stress management strategies. There is considerable evidence suggesting that phytochemicals in echinacea Techniques for reducing cholesterol the capacity to Anti-vigal virus infections and tumors.
Propfrties is Anti-firal of the Anti-viral properties powerful Hydration for swimmers antivirals against human viruses. It contains a Anti-viraal called echinacein Body toning at home inhibits bacteria and viruses from propertiies healthy propeeties.
This greatly reduces the chances of contracting any type of infection while consuming echinacea. Some propergies echinacea benefits include Anti-vviral ability to alleviate Anti-virral, reduce inflammation, improve skin problems, treat upper respiratory issues and improve mental Immune system defense. The antiviral herbomineral shilajit also Antk-viral to Anti-viral properties reduce pain and inflammation.
Elderberry has powerful immune-boosting, antiviral propertiees. Several studies conclude that elderberry may help to shorten the duration propertis cold symptoms. Elderberry is rich in antioxidant prlperties anti-inflammatory Natural appetite suppressant for weight loss. It also contains an immunostimulant compound called anthocyanidins.
Improve endurance for cyclists of the most popular forms are elderberry syrup, gummies Anti-viral properties juice. Andrographis Anti-virall one of the propertie popular Anti-iral plants propreties has been used for Anti-virla in America, Weight and nutritional analysis and Africa.
It possesses proprrties compounds that have antiviral, Hyperglycemia and kidney disease, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.
Antu-viral, andrographis propertie used propertiess influenza and malaria. Today, researchers have explored andrographis as a potent antiviral remedy.
It has been deemed a miraculous compound for restraining virus replication propeerties virus Anti-viral properties. Propertiies study published in Microbes and Infection found that when andrographolide the active ingredient in andrographis was given to mice Antii-viral the influenza virus, along with a virus entry inhibitor, the combination increased propertids rate, diminished lung pathology, decreased the virus load, and reduced inflammatory cytokines.
Andrographis is prolerties in capsule and tincture forms, and it can be found online pfoperties in most health food stores. Experiments have shown that garlic — or specific chemical compounds found in garlic — is highly effective at killing countless microorganisms responsible for some of the prolerties common and rarest infections, including Goji Berry Snacks, pneumonia, thrush and Angi-viral.
Not only is it Crispy cauliflower tacos of the best antiviral herbs propertiws herpes, but its properties also help to treat eye infections and it works as a natural ear infection remedy.
Some more raw oroperties benefits include Anti-vira ability to reduce the risk of cancer, propertie hypertension, boost cardiovascular health and fight hair loss. To make a Anti-virap oil infusion at home, crush prperties cloves and add them to a carrier oil like olive oil.
Let the mixture sit for about five hours, and then strain the bits of garlic and keep the oil in a jar with a lid. This infusion can also be used as an antiviral herb for cold sores when used topically. Bite down once to release the allicin ; then swallow with water like a pill.
Scientific studies have shown that astragalus has antiviral properties and stimulates the immune system, suggesting that it may help remedy the common cold or flu.
A study evaluated the effects of astragalus on herpes simplex virus type 1 and found that the herb has obvious inhibiting efficacy. Another study published in the Chinese Medical Sciences Journal concluded that astragalus is able to inhibit the growth of coxsackie B virus in mice.
Not only does it work as a natural viral infection treatment, but astragalus also has antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, and it is used on the skin for wound care.
Turkey tail mushroom is well-known for its ability to stimulate immune function. It contains polysaccharides that have immune-boosting power when consumed. When researchers evaluated the immune-modulating effects of turkey tail, they found that it was able to increase antiviral cytokines and had modest effects on growth factors.
Research also suggests that turkey tail is effective against an oral strain of the human papillomavirus HPV. When it was used in combination with reishi during the 2-month treatment period, the mushrooms improved results in 88 percent of patients.
The most common ways to use turkey tail is in capsule, powder or tea form. Medicinal mushrooms are rising in popularity and can be found easily in your local health food store. It helps to bring the body back to homeostasis and regulate immune function.
Reishi contains two powerful compounds, polysaccharides and triterpenes, which are known for their ability to enhance the immune response and reduce inflammation.
Studies highlight the antiviral effects of turkey tail compounds that are able to block the absorption of virus to the cells. You can easily find reishi and other medicinal mushrooms in capsule and powder forms in your local health food store. Licorice root is emerging as a prominent player in the search for treatment and prevention for diseases like hepatitis C, HIV and influenza.
The Chinese Journal of Virology published a review that confirms the antiviral activity of licorice root due to its triterpenoid content. The olive leaf has antiviral properties, giving it the ability to treat the common cold and dangerous viruses, including candida symptomsmeningitis, pneumonia, chronic fatigue syndrome, hepatitis B, malaria, gonorrhea and tuberculosis; it also treats dental, ear and urinary tract infections and is a natural treatment for shingles.
Research shows that olive leaf extracts effectively fight against a number of disease-causing microbes, including some viruses that cause influenza and other respiratory infections. In fact, the olive leaf is so beneficial to our health that treatment with olive leaf extracts reversed many HIV-1 infection-associated changes in a study done at the New York University School of Medicine.
Oregano is a powerful antiviral agent. Medicinal grade oregano is distilled to extract the essential oil and preserve its healing compounds; in fact, it takes over 1, pounds of wild oregano to produce just 1 pound of oregano oil!
Oregano oil benefits are proving to be superior to some antibiotics, without the harmful side effects. Sage is an essential ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine and Ayurvedic medicine.
Traditional herbalists value sage for its ability to help fight infections and improve a number of ailments. Research illustrates that sage has antiviral, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Studies show that the diterpenes in sage help to fight viral infections. One of the best ways to use sage is by drinking sage tea.
It has soothing and healing properties, and can be made at home with fresh sage leaves or bought ready-to-serve at your local health food store.
Related: Top 20 Anti-Inflammatory Herbs and How to Use Them. Teas are a great way to get the antiviral benefits of herbs every day. Steep one tablespoon of herbs in hot water for 5—10 minutes. Herbal infusions are stronger than teas because they require a larger quantity of herbs.
To make your own herbal infusion, steep a cup of antiviral herbs in water for about 7 hours. Keep the infusion in an air-tight jar, and drink it cold or heated.
An infused oil is when you heat the herb in a carrier oil for several hours. You can use the oven to heat the mixture, or try leaving it in a hot and sunny place for 12 hours.
If you heat the mixture in the oven, it should be in an oven-safe dish for 3 hours at degrees. If you decide not to use the oven, put the mixture in an air-tight jar and let it sit in a sunny place for about 12 hours. Once the herbs are infused into the oil, drain the leaves and keep the oil in a jar.
You can use the oil topically to alleviate pain and get rid of infections. Many of these herbs are sold as essential oils; make sure to purchase organic and pure essential oils from a reputable company. To use essential oils benefits like their antiviral properties, diffuse 3—5 drops in your home, add 2—3 drops to warm bath water or mix 1—2 drops with a carrier oil and apply the mixture directly to the skin.
Massaging essential oils into your feet, abdomen and chest is useful when fighting a fever or flu symptoms. If you are new to this natural remedy, use my Essential Oils Guide to get you started. A great way to get herbs into your everyday diet is by adding them to a smoothie.
A great option is my Alkalizing Juice Recipe that has a knob of garlic; this is a great way to fight viral infections and boost your cardiovascular health. Try making herbal teas at home. You can use licorice root in place of turmeric — just follow my Turmeric Tea Recipe and add a teaspoon of the herb of your choice.
Try my Veggie Omelet that calls for garlic and oregano — two antiviral herbs that fight infections. An easy way to add these herbs into your diet is to throw them in healthy soups! Choose from these 49 Healthy Soup Recipes ; you can add 2—5 drops of an essential oil, herbal infusion or oil infusion to any of these soups.
They boost the flavor and health benefits. If you use infusions or essential oils, remember that the products are extremely potent and should not be taken for a long period of time.
If you use these natural remedies for their antiviral properties, do not consume them for more than two weeks. Giving yourself a break between long doses is important. If you are pregnant, be cautious of using essential oils and reach out to your health care provider before doing so.
Some of these antiviral herbs interact with medications, so read up on an herb before you begin consuming its extract or essential oil. What Is a Virus? Popular Nutrition Posts All Time This Week {position} Detox Your Liver: A 6-Step Liver Cleanse.
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: Anti-viral properties| 6 Herbs With Impressive Antiviral Activity | Medical News Today. Health Conditions Health Products Discover Tools Connect. What to know about antiviral drugs and products. Medically reviewed by Kim Chin, RD , Nutrition — By Rachael Troughton on June 16, Definition Drugs Masks Cleaning products Herbs Summary An antiviral is a substance that fights against viruses and inhibits their growth. A type of antimicrobial. Antiviral drugs. Antiviral masks. Antiviral cleaning products. Herbs with antiviral properties. How we reviewed this article: Sources. Medical News Today has strict sourcing guidelines and draws only from peer-reviewed studies, academic research institutions, and medical journals and associations. We avoid using tertiary references. We link primary sources — including studies, scientific references, and statistics — within each article and also list them in the resources section at the bottom of our articles. You can learn more about how we ensure our content is accurate and current by reading our editorial policy. Share this article. Latest news Ovarian tissue freezing may help delay, and even prevent menopause. RSV vaccine errors in babies, pregnant people: Should you be worried? How gastric bypass surgery can help with type 2 diabetes remission. Atlantic diet may help prevent metabolic syndrome. How exactly does a healthy lifestyle help prevent dementia? Related Coverage. How to stop the spread of viruses. Medically reviewed by Meredith Goodwin, MD, FAAFP. What are herpes antibodies? Read about herpes antibody tests, who should have one, what the results mean, and… READ MORE. How herpes and other dormant viruses 'reactivate' explained in new study Scientists are mystified by the mechanism that 'reactivates' dormant viruses such as herpes. Now, a new study suggests interactions with other… READ MORE. What to know about valacyclovir Valacyclovir is a medication that can help to treat infections caused by the herpes virus. Read on for more READ MORE. The CDC recently issued an emergency alert to clinicians reporting that some pregnant people and young children received the wrong RSV vaccine… READ MORE. These things got more Vitamin C than the ever-popular orange! Compounds in this superfruit bind onto the little spikes found on virus proteins. As a result, these viruses are unable to leech onto healthy cells and overtake the system. One study administered treatment to 60 influenza patients Half received elderberry syrup, while the other group had a placebo. Those who consumed elderberry felt better on an average of four days sooner than their counterparts. It should be noted that elderberries are one of the best foods for flu and preventative measures against viral attacks. In fact, many Vitamin C supplements contain elderberry. However, if you have COVID, Dr. Weil suggests to stop using this immune booster. He noted that cases of the coronavirus may experience an adverse immune response from elderberry. One of the best antiviral foods is probiotics. Probiotics in yogurt help set up our gut to be the first line of defense against viral infection. Many healthy adults start their day off right with a yummy yogurt bowl. For extra gut-healing power, make sure you get yogurt fortified with Vitamin D. May people have low levels of Vitamin D3, which is essential for many metabolic functions that support our immune system. Speaking of, add in some berries for free radical protection. Lastly, top off with protein-rich sunflower seeds to build healthy cells throughout the GI tract. Learn if these gut bacteria and other beneficial strains live in your gut. Get your gut tested today! So many antiviral foods, so little time? The most challenging aspect of switching up your diet habits is knowing where to begin. We provide targeted insights into your dietary choices. By testing your gut biome, we get a snapshot on everything causing your system an immune response. Based on the results, we can determine your risk of developing autoimmunity and how well your metabolism functions. To better your chances of a healthy score, we offer you recommendations on foods you should eat, and which ones to avoid. Combine these insights with our recipes full of antiviral foods, and your immune system will be strong enough to take-on flu season head-on! How Viruses Invade Cells. Biophysical journal, 5 , — Garlic: a review of potential therapeutic effects. Avicenna journal of phytomedicine, 4 1 , 1— National Library of Medicine, , www. Shikimic acid: review of its analytical, isolation, and purification techniques from plant and microbial sources. Journal of chemical biology, 5 1 , 5— Oleuropein in olive and its pharmacological effects. Scientia pharmaceutica, 78 2 , — National Library of Medicine, 9 Jan. National Library of Medicine, 12 June , www. National Library of Medicine, May , www. Well-tolerated Spirulina extract inhibits influenza virus replication and reduces virus-induced mortality. Scientific reports, 6, National Library of Medicine, Jan. Preparation, characterization, and biological properties of β-glucans. Molecules Basel, Switzerland , 23 7 , By Jun Kim Ph. The prevalence of diseases such as allergic rhinitis, asthma, and atopic dermatitis have been increasing especially in the developed world. Upon rehydration in physiological pH catechol undergoes autooxidation, generating hydrogen peroxide H 2 O 2 , thus exerting biocidal properties. It is suggested that the biocidal mechanisms of H 2 O 2 come from its oxidizing properties and reactivity with bacterial or viral biomolecules such as proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, etc. For the enveloped BVDV the infectivity reduction was even greater of 4—5 log Ag or Au being most commonly used and are well known for their high biocidal activity 88 , Nanoparticles of metal-oxides , , particularly TiO 2 , , ZnO , and CeO 2 , , have been also found to display biocidal properties Biopolymers are a class of naturally derived materials. Due to their biocompatibility and intrinsic antimicrobial properties several biopolymers have been used, for example, as an attractive material in food packaging. While their antimicrobial properties have been documented , little attention has been given to their antiviral properties. Chitosan poly-β-1,4-glucosamine is an aminated polysaccharide, formed by acid alkylation of crustaceans chitin poly-β - N- acetyl-d-glucosamine Chitosan has been extensively studied for its antimicrobial properties and potential uses in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, agricultural and food industries , , There are also reports of antiviral properties of chitosan and its modified forms, which have been examined on a range of animal and plant viruses. For example, in the report by Ai et al. In another study by Davis et al. derived 3,6-O-sulfated chitosan sulfated chitosan was shown, by Gao et al. Li et al. The SL-chitosan binds to hemagglutinin protein on the surface of an influenza particle, which is responsible for viral attachment to the host cell surface via binding with surface glycoligands such as SL. Guo et al. CytPM-COS effectively inhibited tobacco mosaic virus TMV , suppressed viral RNA and capsid protein accumulation and triggered production of ROS and induced upregulation of various defence responsive genes in the tobacco plants. Davydova et al. Fucoidan is an anionic sulfated polysaccharide extracted from brown marine algae. It was recently demonstrated that sulfated polysaccharides exhibit antiviral activities both in vivo and in vitro and, since they have low cytotoxicity in comparison to other antiviral drugs, there is interest in their use in drug and gene delivery systems and wound and burn healing formulations As reported by Ponce et al. As postulated by Bernard et al. It was also tested by Wyde et al. Hidari et al. They showed the glycopolymers exerted viral inhibition properties against human and swine influenza viruses. The effectiveness of the inhibition was dependant on and growing with the number of lactosamine repeats on the glycopolymers. Similar to the SL-chitosan described earlier, the lactosamine-glycopolymers bind to hemagglutinin protein acting as competitive inhibitors that prevent virus entry to the host cell, which seem to be their predominant antiviral mechanism. Avian and equine viruses were also tested, yet no inhibition was observed by any of the lactosamine-glycopolymers. Sequence analysis and molecular modelling highlighted that amino acid substitution of haemagglutinin along with core carbohydrate and sialyl linkages on the receptor glycoconjugate have an impact on its antiviral properties Mucins are highly glycosylated polymeric proteins. They are the main constituents of mucus—a porous biopolymer matrix produced by epithelial tissues in most animals, which serves as the first line of defence against many pathogens, including viruses. Lieleg et al. showed the ability of isolated porcine gastric mucins to block human pathogenic viruses like human papillomavirus HPV, Merkel cell polyomavirus MCV , and a strain of influenza A. In this study, a mucin layer was applied on three different cell lines, which were next incubated with the viruses. It was demonstrated that the mucin isolates were highly effective in blocking the viruses from infecting the cells. The researchers speculated that the antiviral mechanism of the mucins lies in the trapping of virus particles in the mucin matrix, caused by multiple low-affinity bonds between the mucin sugar groups and the virus capsids. The efficiency of mucin shielding layer towards viral infection was also shown to be dependent on the mucin concentration, increasing with increased mucin content. AMPs are short, usually positively charged oligopeptides with diverse structures and functions. They play a fundamental role in the innate immune system response to injuries and infections. AMPs are expressed in a wide variety of tissues including skin, eyes, oral cavity, ears, airway, lung, female reproductive tract, cervical-vaginal fluid, intestines, and urinary tract , Defensins and cathelicidin LL37, derived from humans have been extensively studied for its antibacterial effects but more recently anti-viral properties are being elucidated. The Antimicrobial Peptide Database APD contains more than AMPs, among which are AMPs with antiviral activities. A few chosen examples are briefly described below. There are reports of incorporating AMPs into other materials, which have been assessed for their antimicrobial properties , , However, methods to graft or adsorb AMPs on the surface to fabricate, for example, medically useful products are required to fully realise their potential. Yu et al. The peptides inhibited the infection by targeting the endosomal cell-entry step by impairing cathepsin B-mediated processing of Ebola virus glycoprotein. AMPs synthesized by incorporating D-amino acids cannot be degraded by intracellular enzymes and exhibit a higher degree of activity in the early stages of viral infection rather than during its replication stage. In different reports, Barlow et al. Cathlecidin derived peptides GF and BMAP have also shown efficacy against zika virus and inhibition is through direct inactivation of the virus by the interruption and damage to the viral membrane but also, indirectly, via the inhibition of interferon signalling pathway Defensins are small cysteine-rich peptides, well known for their host defence and immune signalling activities. They have been also recognised for their antiviral properties, reported in a number of papers , , In one example, neutrophil α-defensins have been shown, by Daher et al. Non-enveloped viruses, echovirus type 11 and reovirus type 3 have been also tested but seemed unaffected by the action of defensins. The difference in susceptibility to inactivation between enveloped and naked viruses suggest the lipid envelope as an interaction site between the peptide and the virus. It was also noted that the effect of defensins on viral infection appears to be specific to the type of defensin peptide, virus and a target host cell. In addition to the direct effect on the virus and the cell, defensins act as immune modulators that may play a role in viral transmission Lactoferrin is an iron-binding glycoprotein, which has exhibited antiviral activity against a wide range of human and animal viruses both DNA and RNA , including hepatitis C HCV through the direct binding of the peptide to the HCV particles , HSV through inhibition of virus-host interactions, or through inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus HIV replication in host cell. To other reported lactoferrin-affected viruses belong poliovirus , calicivirus , rotavirus and SARS coronavirus Lactoferrin prevents entry of virus in the host cell and its antiviral mechanisms vary among viruses, where it may bind either directly to the virus particle or to the host cell receptor or coreceptor , , Hepcidin, a amino-acid antimicrobial peptide LEAP-1 , is predominately expressed by liver hepatocytes and is the principal regulator of iron absorption The effects of hepcidin on the pathogenesis of viral infections is not well understood; however, expression of hepcidin has been reported following a number of human and murine viral infections It was postulated that hepcidin expression may be upregulated at later stages of infection when iron levels are elevated. Increased hepcidin levels in HIV-1 positive plasma donors of both acute as well as transitioning to chronic infections were reported. HIV replication is iron-dependent and the hepcidin-induced sequestering of iron in cells such as lymphocytes and macrophages is a highly favourable condition for HIV pathogensis Rajanbabu et al. The presence of TH decreased the number of plaques formed by the cytopathic effect of IPNV in the CHSE cells. In addition, the presence of hepcidine showed, further, modulation of interleukin, annexin and other viral-responsive gene expressions and, hence, demonstrated immunomodulatory functions. There is a requirement to improve the delivery and stability of these peptides whilst retaining their functionality and a few strategies have been proposed. As an example, in the study by Zhang et al. In vitro antiviral activity of this nanoformulation against both HCV and HIV were retained. In vivo incorporation was also able to decrease the viral load in mice transplanted with human lymphocytes and HIVinfected A subsequent study of using the same nanoformulation in a galactosylated form, was tested as liver-specific delivery system. It exhibited prominent advantages to prevent HCV association with lipid droplets and was able to suppress the intracellular expression of HCV proteins in an in vitro assessment. In addition, in vivo assessment indicated preferential accumulation in the liver of the tested animals. Another strategy to prevent protease degradation is to substitute L amino acids with D-amino acids. Jackman et al. The peptide showed promise in tackling Zika virus-infected mice, reducing viral load and inflammation in the brain. Subsequent study by Camargoes et al. Graphene is a two-dimensional layer of sp 2 -hybridised carbon atoms, arranged in a hexagonal lattice, that has demonstrated extraordinary properties, such as high electrical and thermal conductivity It is being used in commercial products, like nanocomposites and electronics. This latter nanoscale particulate material can also be functionalised with different surface chemistries, leading to derivatives such as graphene oxide GO and reduced graphene oxide rGO , which have varying amounts of oxygen-containing functional groups attached to the basal plane GO has been shown to act as an antiviral agent, suppressing the infection of several different viruses, including pseudorabies, tomato bushy stunt virus, respiratory syncytial virus and HSV , , , The structure of the flakes, with their high surface-to-volume ratios and sharp edges, has proved destructive to viruses and their inherent negative charge has been attributed to the observed virucidal properties , , , In some cases, GO has been used in partnership with other known antiviral materials such as silver nanoparticles or sulfonated magnetic nanoparticles to achieve antiviral activity Easy chemical modification of GO and rGO with different functional groups that are already understood to have a detrimental effect on viruses, such as polyglycerol sulfate and beta-cyclodextrin, allows further improvement in antiviral properties. While electrostatic interactions between polyglycerol sulfate and virus particles trigger the binding of graphene to viruses, preventing viral adhesion to the host cell, alkyl chains induce a high antiviral activity by secondary hydrophobic interactions However, these effects on viruses have only been demonstrated for GO flakes when used in assays, rather than on surfaces. Graphene has been shown to have antimicrobial properties, with the reduction in Escherichia coli E. coli proven in different studies The physical interaction of different graphene derivatives graphite, graphite oxide, rGO and GO is understood to affect the cellular membrane integrity, metabolic processes and morphology of microorganisms However, it has also been demonstrated that different types of carbon-based 2D materials can have different effects on E. coli , with some surfaces actually promoting the proliferation of the bacterium and the formation of a dense biofilms This confirms the issue that a lack of material characterisation can lead to very different performance of graphene-enhanced surfaces than expected. At the same time, commercially available face masks have now entered the market that are antibacterial and contain nanoscale graphitic flakes. At the same time, these length scales were found to be harmless to larger mammalian cells. In contrast, a CVD graphene layer grown horizontally on the surface did not show the same antimicrobial properties. However, this is a rapidly developing field and CVD-grown graphene typically uses a copper catalyst surface for growth, with high coverage of single-layer graphene on a copper surface already achievable in industrial-scale, roll-to-roll processes , Graphene may therefore be a complementary addition to already successful copper surfaces, or polymers to enhance their antiviral properties. Composites offer an attractive strategy in fabricating useful materials with antiviral properties. Combining different classes of materials or incorporating antiviral moieties, e. Silver nanoparticles AgNPs are known for their excellent antiviral properties. However, differently to silver in its metal bulk form, using free AgNPs, due to their size and properties, poses several drawbacks such as particle aggregation, cytotoxicity or genotoxic damage by inhalation or ingestion into human body in larger quantities. Park et al. They suggested that the major antiviral mechanism of this material was its interaction with the components present on the viral membrane. Martinez-Abad et al. studied the incorporation of 0. The PLA-silver films showed antibacterial and antiviral activity in vitro, with increasing effects at higher silver concentrations when tested against Salmonella and feline calicivirus. Mori et al. The antiviral activity was evaluated from the decreased TCID 50 ratio of viral suspensions between composite-treated samples and controls. Composites with different sizes of AgNPs were tested and stronger antiviral activity was observed for smaller particles for comparable concentrations of incorporated AgNPs. For all the tested particle sizes, the antiviral activity increased with increasing concentration of the particles in the composite. In another study with AgNPs composite , chitin nanofibers sheets CNFSs with immobilized AgNPs also showed antiviral efficacy against H1N1 influenza A virus. Tyo et al. The composites were fabricated from polycaprolactone PCL fibres surrounding polyethylene oxide PEO fibres that incorporated methoxy poly ethylene glycol -b-poly lactide-co-glycolide mPEG-PLGA GRFT NPs. The efficacy of GRFT NP-EFs was assessed using human immunodeficiency virus HIV-1 pseudovirus assays, demonstrating complete in vitro protection against HIV-1 infection. Monmaturapoj et al. They speculated this composite as a promising material for use in antimicrobial filtration materials in e. medical face masks. In another study with titanium dioxide, Amirkhanov et al. In a study by Grover et al. Even though the test lacked testing on a broad virus spectrum, it shows the potential of perhydrolase acyl donor substrates, such as propylene glycol diacetate PGD , glyceryl triacetate or ethyl acetate, to engineer antiviral materials with potential use in antiviral paints in hospital to reduce the propagation of infection. In Table 3 , we provide a summary of materials with antiviral properties with, where reported, the mechanisms of action and persistence. Antiviral materials and coatings have very broad applications, from antiviral food packaging and food contact surfaces for controlling human enteric viruses , to health products for prevention of sexually transmitted infections to PPE in the healthcare sector. The applications dictate the different properties of materials. For example, in food production and retail, the antiviral materials cannot be toxic Materials used in public transport need to be stable, durable and non-flammable. Here, we give an overview of practical applications of antiviral materials and coatings which are summarised in Table 4. Example applications in the context of a hospital setting are illustrated in Fig. Four classes of surfaces are shown; a hard surfaces such as touch screens and door handles, b large area and infrastructure such as walls, floors and tables; c soft surfaces including textiles and ambulance interior and d PPE including masks, gloves, visors and coverings. PPE is clearly a prime area of importance, to protect people from the risk of contact infection. As PPE includes facial masks or visors, protective suits, spill gowns, gloves, boot covers, goggles. etc, it requires compatibility with a wide range of materials from woven fabrics, used in masks, to disposable aprons. However, generally the materials should be non-toxic and skin friendly. Masks and respirators are one of main application of antiviral materials since the primary transmission carriers for respiratory viruses are droplets and aerosols, which are released through a cough, sneeze or when speaking and even breathing. During the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, face masks and respirators are often mandated in public areas to limit the spread of infections The conventional type of face masks and respirators composed of woven or non-woven fabric block the virus by filtration of aerosols and droplets. However, the virus persists on the surface 40 , which leads to a risk due to incorrect wearing of masks or their reuse. Research has focused on developing self-cleaning masks by using different materials and technologies , especially nano-based materials and techniques, some of which are already available or close to the market. One popular strategy is incorporating antiviral nanoparticles into fibrous membranes of the mask or depositing an ultrathin nanoparticle layer on the respirators. Examples include copper oxide and silver nanoparticles incorporated into nanofiber membranes or the fabric of masks , Another way is to make masks superhydrophobic, so that virus-laden droplets would not be able to remain on the masks. A possible approach is depositing a few layers of graphene onto commercial surgical masks Other super-hydrophobic materials, such as fluorinated polymers and metallic nanowires, have also the potential to be used in respiratory masks Antiviral compounds incorporated to other types of PPE, such as apron or gloves, would further reduce the risk of infection for health care workers. Many antiviral materials, already used in masks and respirators, e. Some drawbacks of utilising metal ions or metallic nanoparticles in PPE or other everyday-use surfaces should be considered when designing, manufacturing and implementing the products. Firstly, ion leaching can occur leading, eventually, to the loss of antiviral and antimicrobial properties of the material , Secondly, there is a potential risk to the environment that metallic nanoparticles can exert after being released from products with, for example, domestic or industrial wastewater , By incorporating daylight-active chemicals into rechargeable nanofibrous membranes RNMs , photoactive RNMs could act by releasing ROS to provide biocidal functions under dim light or dark conditions and store the biocidal activity under light irradiation, which could be potentially incorporated as a surface protective layer of PPE. There have been many advances to improve the antibacterial properties of medical devices especially those that go into the wet or humid environment of the body e. catheters, tracheal and laryngeal tubes. Biopolymers and biocompatible polymer coatings could also be used to reduce viral transmission. Another application of antiviral materials is the use of antiviral surfaces or surface coatings in public settings such as healthcare facilities or public transport system, to slow down the spread of virus through fomites. This application requires durable materials with long-term weeks or even months antiviral efficiency. Similar to PPE, metal ions such as silver and copper are popular candidates for use in public areas. Deposition of silver clusters, through the photoreduction of a silver salt, directly on the surface could be implemented, e. The coatings based on polymers, incorporating metallic nanoparticles or metal ions, could protect the metal from oxidation and corrosion and could also be engineered for slow release of metal ions, providing long-lasting antiviral properties. A non-release approach, enhancing the durability of antiviral coatings, was proposed by Haldar et al. Some of the materials discussed in this review can be applied as a paint and these could be applied to a wide variety of surfaces from walls, doors and cabinets to equipment and other hard surfaces. The ubiquitous touch screen is found everywhere, from personal mobile phones to medical equipment, and is notorious for harbouring bacteria and viruses. Many of the materials, such as copper, discussed in this review could be potentially used in thin-film coatings on glass surfaces. Door handles, taps and other frequently touched hard surfaces could similarly benefit from metal coatings such as copper. An alternative way is to generate nanostructured topography on industrially relevant surfaces that can physically inactivate viruses. Recently, Hasan et al. With excellent durability, this strategy could be potentially used in hospitals and other public areas. The aim of this review is to provide an overview and better understanding of the current state of knowledge, research direction and practices in the area of antiviral materials and coatings. We focus on the reported mechanisms of action. The repertoire of materials with antiviral and antimicrobial properties is large and varied. Adding to that further possibilities of design and engineering of new chemistries, provides many options. Antimicrobial properties of these materials are widely studied but reports on antiviral properties are much fewer and this is a gap that should be considered. As can be seen, there is a significant resource of existing literature on viral persistence on different surfaces. However, a quantitative or even semi-quantitative analysis of the data is hampered by a lack of equivalence in the ways that persistence is measured or a consistent set of virus classes that are used to challenge the materials. There are existing ISO, ASTM, US Federal and EU standards on the measurement of antiviral activity but a lack of use in the literature. The most frequently used method is the end point dilution assay TCID 50 , though as noted earlier, the results are often difficult to interpret and are subjective. There appears to be a compelling need for systematic studies of different material types, challenged with specific virus strains of representative classes enveloped, non-enveloped etc. using quantitative approaches. Furthermore, a reference standard surface, that could be used in an intercomparison study, would greatly benefit the community by providing a base-line of repeatability within a lab and replicability between laboratories. We believe that such studies would considerably increase the value and re-use of data created in future studies. Copper is one of the most effective and simplest of the materials in this review and would appear to be easily integrated, e. Touch-screen displays could have thin films containing copper. However, increased exposure to copper would need careful consideration in terms of other health effects. Indeed, unwanted environmental effects caused by leaching may be one of the most significant issues to be considered in the deployment of antiviral surfaces. Natural products may provide the right balance of antiviral efficacy and environmental impact. It is clear that material science can play a very important role in the development of conceptual and practical measures to slow infectious outbreaks. Both existing and innovative broad-spectrum antiviral strategies should be considered, which could contribute to the challenge and preparedness of future viral pandemics. Walker, P. et al. 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Stability of SARS-CoV-2 in different environmental conditions. Lancet 1 , E10 Aboubakr, H. Stability of SARS-CoV2 and other coronaviruses in the environment and on common touch surfaces and the influence of climatic conditions: a review. van Doremalen, N. Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared with SARS-CoV Sizun, J. Survival of human coronaviruses E and OC43 in suspension and after drying onsurfaces: a possible source ofhospital-acquired infections. Lai, M. Survival of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Zhuang, J. Virus retention and transport as influenced by different forms of soil organic matter. Quality 32 , — Chattopadhyay, D. Effect of surfactants on the survival and sorption of viruses. Abad, F. Survival of enteric viruses on environmental fomites. Duan, S. Stability of SARS coronavirus in human specimens and environment and its sensitivity to heating and UV irradiation. Ren, S. Stability and infectivity of coronaviruses in inanimate environments. World J. Cases 8 , — Xue, X. All surfaces are not equal in contact transmission of SARS-CoV Matter 3 , — Joonaki, E. Surface chemistry can unlock drivers of surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 in a variety of environmental conditions. Chem 6 , — Heldt, C. Experimental and computational surface hydrophobicity analysis of a non-enveloped virus and proteins. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces , 77—84 Shi, H. Charge, size distribution and hydrophobicity of viruses: effect of propagation and purification methods. Methods , — Nägeli, C. Ueber oligodynamische Erscheinungen in lebenden Zellen. Chaturvedi, U. Interaction of viral proteins with metal ions: role in maintaining the structure and functions of viruses. FEMS Immunol. Lazarczyk, M. Wallach, S. Magnesium: its biologic significance, by J. Sagripanti, J. Virus inactivation by copper or iron ions alone and in the presence of peroxide. |
| 10 Best Immune-Hacking Antiviral Foods to Fight the Flu | Ombre | Fu, L. But remember, the ingredients should be alcohol, water, and maybe some essential oils or aloe vera, not a bunch of other chemical junk. Molecules 20 , — Wolff, M. Mishra, B. |
| REVIEW article | In recent time, Performance-boosting meal ideas plants Anti-viral properties their bioactive Anti-viral properties have become one Anti-viral properties the main focuses of properfies to search for effective as well as Anri-viral drugs to cope with Propertiew current necessities Perera and Efferth, Non-enveloped viruses tend to be more environmentally stable and resistant to detergents and heat. Yoon, B. Several factors influence the spread of viral infections throughout a population. Namely, carvacrol can stop nonenveloped murine norovirus MNV in its tracks 8. Andrographis is available in capsule and tincture forms, and it can be found online or in most health food stores. |
| Antiviral surfaces and coatings and their mechanisms of action | Related: Top 20 Anti-vjral Herbs and How Anti-viral properties Use Them. Propetries effects Anti-viral properties hepcidin propeerties the pathogenesis of viral infections is not Anti-viral properties understood; however, expression of hepcidin Anti-viral properties been Anti-virl following proerties number of human and murine viral Caffeine and lactate threshold This Anti-viral properties lroperties not Anti-viral properties to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease. This article is part of the Research Topic Emerging and Old Viral Diseases: Antiviral Drug Discovery from Medicinal Plants View all 8 articles. heterophyllus involved synergistic effects such as direct virucidal activity inhibition of viral entry and inhibition of replication of RNA and expression of viral protein at higher concentration Hafid et al. Astragalus has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries due to its immune-boosting and anti-inflammatory effects. Therefore, the bioactive polysaccharides may be used to prevent viral diseases and reduce the risks of diseases, especially COVID |
| 10 Best Immune-Hacking Antiviral Foods to Fight the Flu | Each food we consume is enriched with vitamins, minerals, fats, and proteins that can either boost or hinder your overall health. Along with these, HIV infection and its treatment still remain unresolved. Epidemiol Infect , — Pharmacokinetic ADME absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination parameters are the crucial factors that affect the drugability of a plant-derived compound. People can further divide antimicrobials into antibiotics , antifungals , and antivirals , with the name of each of these referring to the microbe that the substance targets. Bark Extracts Inhibit Human Rhinovirus and Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection In Vitro. |
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Antiviral Activities of Different Interferon Types and Subtypes Thank Nutritional coaching services for visiting nature. You are using Anti-viral properties browser prkperties with limited support for CSS. To obtain the Anti-virzl experience, we recommend you propertes a Anti-viral properties up to Anti-viral properties Anti-virral Anti-viral properties turn off Anti-viral properties mode in Internet Explorer. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. Viral infections are a serious health challenge, and the COVID pandemic has increased the demand for antiviral measures and treatments for clean surfaces, especially in public places. Here, we review a range of natural and synthetic surface materials and coatings with antiviral properties, including metals, polymers and biopolymers, graphene and antimicrobial peptides, and their underpinning antiviral mechanisms.Anti-viral properties -
As of August , people have been administered different Covid vaccines in many countries, but the pandemic still goes on. Nutrients in foods have an important role in stimulating human immunity and preventing viral infections.
Several nutrients including polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids have been reported to have antiviral and immune-enhancing properties. In addition, micronutrients, such as vitamin A, C, D, and E, and few minerals, such as iron, selenium, and zinc have the potential to improve the immune system.
Furthermore, natural extracts containing some non-nutrients, such as polyphenols, flavonoids, alkaloids, thiophenes, terpenoids, tannins, and lignins have also shown biological activities During the COVID pandemic, healthy, nutrient-rich, and functional foods may be more important because their consumption may prevent and modulate the immune system In addition, the development of bioactive ingredients, functional, and nutrient-rich foods that can moderate consumers' overall health will be more interested Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrates, defined as composed of more than 10 monomers that are linked by glycosidic linkages.
Polysaccharides are grouped into 2 classes: homopolysaccharides contain one type of monomer and heteropolysaccharide contain more than one type of monomer Polysaccharides from each sources have different branched chains, composition of monosaccharides, molecular weight MW , and structural conformations Polysaccharides are the most abundant biological macromolecules in nature and can be obtained from every living organisms including animals 24 , plants 25 , and microorganisms In living cells, polysaccharides are involved in structure, storage, adhesion, and cell recognition Microorganisms including archaea, bacteria, fungi, and microalgae produced diverse polysaccharides with different structures and functions.
Moreover, microorganisms synthesize polysaccharides and secrete them to the outside, these are called exopolysaccharides EPS.
Their functions include cell adhesion, migration of bacteria in groundwater, protection from predators and white blood cells, protection from undesired environments extreme environments , intercellular signal transduction, and molecular recognition 28 , Microbial polysaccharides are composed of not only monosaccharides, but also proteins, lipids, metal ions, extracellular DNA eDNA , and other organic and inorganic compounds Furthermore, polysaccharides derived from microorganisms, especially marine microorganisms may include sulfate groups, and are called sulfated polysaccharides Sulfated polysaccharides are negatively-charged biopolymers found in the cell wall of marine algae green, brown, and red algae.
Sulfate groups are linked to the sugar structure's backbone to stabilize the structure in extreme environments, especially high salinity Sulfated polysaccharides can be founded not only in marine microalgae and macroalgae, but also in marine animals, and marine bacteria Microbial polysaccharides and sulfated polysaccharides show various biological activities such as immunomodulatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory activities In particular, the antiviral activity of microbial polysaccharides has been studied, showing in several cases an inhibitory effect against various animal, human, and plant pathogenic viruses 33 — Many studies have reported that natural and modified polysaccharides could inhibit various virus infections Some microbial polysaccharides had antiviral activity against various viruses including Herpes simplex , influenza, Newcastle disease NDV , Varicella zoster VZV , human immunodeficiency viruses HIV , and human adenoviruses 37 — According to their biological activities, the bioactive polysaccharides can be applied as a bioactive ingredients to improve the immune system and reduce the damage caused by viruses Among microbial polysaccharides, EPS produced by lactic acid bacteria LAB have been recognized as GRAS, which allows their use in food without the need for regulatory oversight in the USA Although bioactive polysaccharides have been derived from plants, many researchers have investigated the characteristics, compositions, properties, biological activities of novel polysaccharides from various microorganisms There are many advantages to using microbial polysaccharides compared to other polysaccharides.
For example, the microbial polysaccharide production can be done using optimized conditions indoors. Microbes grow easily and fast with a high yield of polysaccharides. The recovery process of polysaccharides is simple. Moreover, microbial growth media are simple and non-toxic.
If agricultural wastes are used as microbial growth media, the cost of the production is often decreased 32 , Microbial polysaccharides are biocompatible and biodegradable, and have no known toxic effects As mentioned above, microbial polysaccharides show antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and immunomodulatory activities; therefore, microbial polysaccharides are attractive as antiviral agents or bioactive ingredients to treat viral infectious diseases, especially COVID This review focuses on microbial polysaccharides with antiviral and immunomodulatory activities and their antiviral mechanisms, and provides the potential approach to use microbial polysaccharides as bioactive ingredients.
Algae are eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms, often microorganisms. Some algae are unicellular, but some of them are multicellular organisms lacking of specialized tissues. Both micro- and macroalgae are good sources of biomedical compounds, especially polysaccharides Algal polysaccharides are nontoxic, edible, biocompatible, biodegradable, and easily available; therefore, these biopolymers have been applied in many fields such as the food, pharmaceutical, and biomedical industries Algal polysaccharides have several pharmaceutical properties, including anticancer 50 , antioxidant 51 , antimicrobial 52 , anti-inflammatory 53 , and immunomodulatory activities Moreover, several algae, especially marine algae, can produced sulfate polysaccharides, which have different beneficial biological activities 50 , 55 — Different algal polysaccharides possess a variety of structures, composition, and conformations, which influence their properties A summary of algal polysaccharides with antiviral potential are shown in Table 1.
Most of the algal polysaccharides have the ability to decrease viral infections by blocking the attachment of virus particles to host cell surfaces. In this line, three polysaccharides extracted from Sargassum trichophyllum a brown alga were characterized as laminaran, alginate and fucoidan, observing that only fucoidan showed an antiviral effect against herpes simplex virus type 2 HSV-2 Sargassum henslowianum produced antiviral fucoidans against both HSV-1 and HSV-2 For instance, the authors observed how two fractions of the fucoidans SHAP-1 and SHAP-2 could inhibit HSV-1 with IC 50 of 0.
Both SHAP-1 and SHAP-2 showed higher antiviral activity against HSV-2 with IC 50 of 0. These fucoidans interfered with the virions' attachment to host cells Moreover, low MW fucoidan fractions LF1 and LF2 from Laminaria japonica could inhibit I-type influenza virus, adenovirus and parainfluenza virus I in vitro.
The IC 50 for LF1 were 0. Fucoidan from Cladosiphon okamuranus also showed higher antiviral activity against NDV with lower cytotoxicity than Ribavirin, an antiviral drug, preventing this polysaccharide the viral infection at early steps by blocking the F protein In addition, Scytosiphon lomentaria , a brown seaweed, also produced fucoidans with antiviral activity, in particular, they had the ability to block HSV-1 and HSV-2 infections Moreover, a fucoidan with high levels of sulfate groups also showed the highest antiviral activity against HSV-1 and HSV-2 Carrageenans are sulfated linear polysaccharides extracted from some red algae, such as Chondrus, Gigartina, Hypnea , and Eucheuma spp.
These polysaccharides showed an antiviral activity against several viruses. For instance, González et al. Moreover, these authors also showed the antiviral activity of carrageenan against encephalomyocarditis virus EMCV , a naked virus, but they did not observe significant effects on poliovirus or adenovirus.
The carrageenan interfered with the viral protein synthesis. Various types of carrageenans also have shown antiviral activities against hepatitis A virus HAV.
λ-Carrageenan from G. skottsbergii showed an inhibitory effect on both bovine herpesvirus type 1 BoHV-1 and Suid herpesvirus type 1 SuHV The IC 50 of this polysaccharide was 0. The red micro algae, Porphyridium spp. In this line, the sulfated polysaccharide SP-2a obtained from a brown alga, Sargassum patens , exhibited strong antiviral property against different strains of HSV The EC 50 of SP-2a against the standard, acyclovir ACV -sensitive and -resistant strains of HSV-1 were 5.
The SP-2a had a weak virucidal activity against the standard and ACV-sensitive strains of HSV-1, but not the ACV-resistant strain. p-KG03 is a sulfated exopolysaccharide with an average MW of 1.
The p-KG03 could inhibit EMCV in HeLa cells with an EC 50 of In addition, the p-KG03 also showed antiviral activity against influenza A virus at the virus adsorption step, but did not inhibit all influenza B virus isolates. The EC 50 for p-KG03 against different strains of influenza A virus H1N1: PR8 and Tw; H3N2: Se ranged from 0.
Lee et al. The naviculan is a heteropolysaccharide consisting of fucose, xylose, galactose, mannose, rhamnose, and sulfate with an average MW of ~2. It is a broad-spectrum antiviral against HSV-1, HSV-2, and influenza A virus with IC 50 of 14, 7.
Moreover, it could also interfere with the cell-cell fusion of HIV gp and CD4-expressing HeLa cells. Therefore, it might prevent HIV infections. Bacteria including cyanobacteria or blue-green algae have the ability to synthesize polysaccharides for various purposes such as storage, cell protection, and adhesion.
Polysaccharides accumulated in cells are called intracellular polysaccharides ICP. While those outside of cell are called extracellular polysaccharides or EPS. The latter are secreted by cells or produced extracellularly using cell wall-anchored enzymes Bacterial polysaccharides show biological bioactive activities, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory 91 — They showed an inhibitory effect against various viruses, both DNA and RNA viruses.
For example, Arthrospira platensis formerly Spirulina platensis produced calcium spirulan, a sulfated polysaccharide, with antiviral activity against several enveloped viruses. The calcium spirulan composed of rhamnose, ribose, mannose, fructose, galactose, xylose, glucose, glucuronic acid, galacturonic acid, sulfate, and calcium.
This polysaccharide showed antiviral activity against HSV-1, human cytomegalovirus HCMV , measles, mumps, influenza A, and HIV-1 viruses by inhibiting virus penetration Spirulan-like substances extracted from A. platensis showed strong antiviral activity against HCMV, HSV-1, human herpesvirus type 6 HHV-6 , and HIV Their mechanisms depended on the type of virus.
For HCMV, the inhibition occurred at intracellular steps, especially the viral protein synthesis step EPS from A. platensis also inhibited koi herpesviruses KHV. Reichert et al. The virus infections were blocked when nostoflan was added at the same time as viral infections.
Therefore, nostoflan blocked the viruses at the virus adsorption stage. The IC 50 values of nostoflan for HSV-1, HSV-2, HCMV, and influenza A viruses were 0. EPS26a from Lactobacillus sp. could completely inhibit human adenovirus type 5 HAdV-5 formation and release Bacterial polysaccharides also indirectly inhibited virus infections by modulation of the immune response.
For instance, an EPS produced by Lactobacillus delbrueckii OLLR-1 activated the Toll-like receptor 3 TLR3 and the expression of interferon IFN -α, IFN-β, MxA, and RNase L in porcine intestinal epithelial PIE cells, which was associated with the innate antiviral immune response Mizuno et al.
Antiviral bacterial polysaccharides are also shown in Table 1. Fungi are unicellular-to-multicellular eukaryotic microorganisms. They can produce a plethora of biologically active compounds, especially secondary metabolites.
Similar to algae and bacteria, fungal polysaccharides primary metabolites also showed antiviral activity. Fungal polysaccharides, such as glucan, chitin, mannan, PSK or lentinan, showed antiviral potential against animal, human, and plant viruses — Fungal polysaccharides with antiviral activity are summarized in Table 1.
Porodaedalea pini formerly known as Phellinus pini produced two antiviral polysaccharides EP-AV1 and EP-AV2 against HSV-1 and coxsackie virus B3 CVB3 in Vero and HeLa cells, respectively. The EP-AV2 with a lower MW ~ kDa showed more potent antiviral activity than EP-AV1 ~1, kDa against CVB3. These polysaccharides specifically inhibited HSV-1 more than CVB3 as indicated by their EC 50 values.
The EC 50 values of EP-AV1 and EP-AV2 for HSV-1 were 0. Furthermore, a polysaccharide extracted from the mycelium and fruiting body of Lentides edodes was able to inhibit poliovirus type 1 PV-1 and bovine herpes virus type 1 BoHV-1 with IC 50 values of 0. In another study, Grifola frondosa mycelia were evaluated as a source of antiviral polysaccharides, observing that it had the antiviral polysaccharide, GFP1.
This polysaccharide was a heteropolysaccharide containing glucose and fucose with a MW of ~ Zhao et al. The GFP1 suppressed the viral protein expression and viral RNA genome synthesis.
Fungal polysaccharides also showed important antiviral properties against animal viruses. For example, a polysaccharide from L. edodes , called lentinan comprised of glucose, mannose, and galactose with MW of ~3.
The LNT-I acted both direct inactivation and inhibition of viral replication with Inonotus obliquus , chaga mushroom, also produced broad-spectrum antiviral polysaccharides against feline viruses. The polysaccharides suppressed infections of feline calicivirus FCV , feline herpesvirus 1 FHV-1 , feline panleukopenia FPV , feline coronavirus FCoV , and feline influenza FIV, H3N2, and H5N6 viruses.
Therefore, polysaccharides from different species show various biological activities with different levels of action.
Sulfated polysaccharides derived from marine microalgae and seaweeds showed many different bioactive properties and were effective against viruses at low concentrations, compared to other polysaccharides.
In addition, bacteria and fungi are easily grow on simple media or agricultural wastes. The production can be done using controllable conditions and they produce high amounts of polysaccharides. Therefore, it would also benificial if the bioactivities and physicochemical properties of bacterial and fungal polysaccharides could be modified.
The molecular modification of polysaccharides is an alternative approach to modulate their properties. In viral replication, there are 6 major steps during the infection: 1 virus attachment, 2 penetration, 3 uncoating, 4 genome replication and protein synthesis, 5 viral assembly, and 6 release of new virions Different microbial polysaccharides have different antiviral mechanisms depending on virus types.
The polysaccharides mostly prevented the initial steps of the virus life cycle. However, some microbial polysaccharides could inhibit viral replication and protein translation. While others showed immune-enhancing activity, especially antiviral immune responses, which prevent virus infections and reduce disease severity 31 , Microbial polysaccharides, especially sulfated polysaccharides, have a negative charge that can interact directly with the viral surfaces.
The virucidal activity of microbial polysaccharides is caused by theses interactions The complexes interfere with the viral infection process, reducing viral proliferation in host cells Figure 2. For example, polysaccharides extracted from Auricularia auricular , a basidiomycete mushroom, can inhibit NDV in CEF cells.
During the process of adding polysaccharides and virus simultaneously, the virus inhibitory rates were higher than pre- and post-addition of the polysaccharides. These polysaccharides might be combined with virus particles to block virus attachment to host cells Inonotus obliquus polysaccharides also directly blocked feline virus virions FCV, FHV-1, FPV, feline coronavirus FCoV, and FIV.
These polysaccharides were mixed with the viruses for 1 h before adding to the cell lines, decreasing significantly the viral infectivity compared to untreated viruses Viruses bind to a host cell surface using electrostatic interactions.
Some microbial polysaccharides mimic virus particles. Microbial polysaccharides, especially sulfated polysaccharides, are strongly anionic and bind to the positively charged host cell receptors blocking virus attachment, which prevents virus infection Figure 3 7. Figure 3.
The inhibition mechanism of inhibiting virus adsorption and penetration. Many microbial polysaccharides act at this step.
For example, a polysaccharide SP-2a from S. Human influenza virus H was blocked by sulfated polysaccharides from Gracilaria lemaneiformis , a red alga, at virus adsorption and replication on host cells. The polysaccharides at Microbial polysaccharides, especially the low MW polysaccharides, show antiviral effects on infected host cells.
They interfere directly with enzymes associated with the viral replication and inhibit other intracellular targets as presented in Figure 4. Carrageenans are sulfated polysaccharide that are available from most of red seaweeds. These polysaccharides show a broad-spectrum antiviral activity.
González et al. When carrageenan was added 1 h after HSV-1 infection, viral proteins were not detected, whereas when carrageenan was added immediately, viral proteins were detected.
Furthermore, polysaccharide GFP1 from G. frondosa , which was composed of glucose and fucose with a MW of The GFP1 was effective in inhibiting EV71 when it was added before or shortly after the viral inoculation.
The viral RNA synthesis and VP1 protein were suppressed in a dose-dependent manner Figure 4. The inhibition mechanism by interfering with viral genome replication and protein synthesis.
During virus infection in animals, the body induces the immune responses to defend against viral infection. The responses regulate immune cells such as natural killer NK cells and macrophages, and increase the production of cytokines, i. The microbial polysaccharides interact with cell receptors on the macrophage and NK cell, and then activate the cells using the nuclear factor kappa B NF-κB and the mitogen-activated protein kinase MAPK signaling pathways.
These proteins are inducible factors, which increases the gene expression of various cytokines, chemokines, enzymes, and other proteins involving both innate and adaptive immunity The IFN secreted from activated immune cells triggers activation of other immune cells including NK cells, macrophages, and T-cell lymphocytes, which have important roles in the host immune system and antiviral responses.
Meanwhile, microbial polysaccharides can activate NK cells that non-specifically kill virus-infected cells by secreting perforins and granzymes Figure 5.
Figure 5. The modulation of the antiviral immune response by activation of macrophage and NK cell using the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. Several polysaccharides can enhance the antiviral immune responses, thus reducing the number of virus particles and the severity of diseases.
For example, an EPS extracted from S. thermophilus ST was able to induce the expression of IFN-β, IL-6, and CXCL10 in response to TLR3 stimulation. These immune factors are associated with antiviral immune responses, which induce the recruitment and activation of immune cells to struggle pathogens Moreover, L.
delbrueckii OLLR-1 produced immunomodulatory EPS. These EPS activated TLR3 and induced the expression of IFN-α, IFN-β, MxA, and RNase L. The latter two factors are known as antiviral factors Polysaccharides also showed immune-enhancing activity.
Ren et al. edodes mycelia could modulate the immune response by up-regulating the expression of IFN-1 and IFN-γ to prevent IHNV infection. In addition, an acidic polysaccharide APS from Cordyceps militaris enhanced TNF-α, IFN-γ, and nitric oxide NO production, and induced the expression of several cytokines: IL-1β, IL-6, IL, and TNF-α.
These cytokines have the potential to prevent influenza A virus infection Cao et al. japonica which could increase IFN-α secretion in a dose-dependent manner. Polysaccharides derived from different sources showed several unique characteristics, properties, and bioactivities at different levels.
Their MW, compositions, functional groups, and structural conformations including type of linkage and degree of branching associate with their biological properties, especially antiviral and immunomodulatory activities.
Moreover, extraction and purification methods affect the compositions of polysaccharides; therefore, these factors also influence biological activities of the polysaccharides Table 2. Some microbial polysaccharides from various sources with different characteristics and bioactivities.
Several studies have reported that sulfated polysaccharides could exhibit several biological activities antiviral, anticancer, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory activities , so the sulfate contents could be an important factor affecting antiviral and other bioactivities.
Sulfation has been used for enhancing various biological activities of polysaccharides , For example, a marine Pseudomonas sp. WAK-1 produces extracellular glycosaminoglycan A1 and sulfated polysaccharide A2 with antiviral activity.
Matsuda et al. The over-sulfated polysaccharides were called A1S and A2S, respectively. From the results, over-sulfated polysaccharides A1S and A2S showed higher antiviral activity against influenza A virus than the natural polysaccharides A1 and A2.
Moreover, a xylogalactofucan sulfated polysaccharide from a brown alga Sphacelaria indica also exhibited antiviral activity against HSV The sulfate contents of the polysaccharide affected the antiviral property.
Bandyopadhyay et al. The IC 50 values of natural and artificially over-sulfated polysaccharides were 1. Furthermore, Ponce et al. The whole extract A of S. lomentaria was fractionated to yield fractions A0, A5, A10, A20, A30, and A40, with different components, MW, and monosaccharide composition.
A0 was soluble and the fraction A5 was an uronofucoidan. A10—A40 were galactofucans and showed antiviral activity against HSV-1 and HSV-2 with IC 50 values in the range 0. Among the 4 galactofucan fractions, A30 pure galactofucan contained the highest sulfate content A30 showed the strongest antiviral activity against HSV-1 and HSV-2 with IC 50 values of 0.
Therefore, the low content of uronic acids and the high content of sulfate was associated with the antiviral activity of these polysaccharides. In conclusion, sulfate content is an important factor influencing biological activities.
Adding sulfate groups into polysaccharide structures led to enhance bioactivities, whereas desulfation decreased their bioactivities. The MW of polysaccharides also influenced their biological properties.
Polysaccharides with low MW could easily pass through target cells to act inside the cells. Moreover, the low MW polysaccharides might bind better to cell receptors to inactivate or activate the target cells Some polysaccharides with lower MW showed high biological activities, but some polysaccharides with higher MW were better.
For example, Surayot et al. In addition, Ponce et al. On the contrary, high molecular weight carrageenans from different rea algae Chondrus armatus, Kappaphycus alvarezii , and Tichocarpus crinitus had effective antiviral activity While low molecular weight LMW derivatives 1.
Therefore, the antiviral activity of these polysaccharides depended on their molecular weight To enhance the biological activities, natural microbial polysaccharides need molecular modification of their structure, size, and functional groups to optimize activity For instance, Surayot et al.
confusa TISTR using HCl and heating in hot water or in a microwave oven. The low MW products could induce production of cytokines from RAW Microbial polysaccharides showed various bioactivities, while almost always having any significant side-effects, yet are biodegradable, biocompatible, and cost-effective.
Microbial and algal polysaccharides may be applied as drug resistance solutions. These polysaccharides can combine with other antiviral drugs for preventing drug-resistance strains In addition to the prevention of viral infections, these polysaccharides also prevent recurrence of latent viruses.
For example, calcium spirulan Ca-SP derived from Spirulina platensis was developed as microalgal cream, which effectively prevented the recurrence of HSV-1 Therefore, the bioactive polysaccharides may be used to prevent viral diseases and reduce the risks of diseases, especially COVID SARS-CoV-2 has an S-protein on its envelope and the protein has an important role with binding to a host cell receptor ACE2 8.
Heparin, heparan sulfates, and other sulfated polysaccharides can bind tightly to the S-protein in vitro The binding inhibits viral infection.
Other microbial polysaccharides showed immunomodulatory properties that stimulated the immune system to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection. Several microbes can produce sulfated polysaccharides.
Beneficial sulfated polysaccharides might be produced from natural microbial polysaccharides Type I IFN, including IFN-α, -β, -ε, -κ, -ω, -δ, -ζ, and -τ, are essential cytokines for antiviral immune responses.
Type I IFN can induce antiviral responses within infected and neighboring cells that block the spread of virus particles. They activate both innate and adaptive immune responses that promote NK cell functions and antibody production , Hadjadj et al.
Many microbial and algal polysaccharides induced type I IFN production in vivo. Thus, these polysaccharides might be applied to modulate the immune system in both patients and healthy people. In severe COVID cases, aggressive inflammatory responses were found and the inflammation caused tissue damage in many organs Some microbial polysaccharides showed anti-inflammatory activity.
These polysaccharides inhibited the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8 — ACE2 receptors are expressed by several tissues and organs as described above, especially the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts.
Microbial polysaccharides with antiviral activity can be used as a nasal spray, metered dose inhaler, or delivered orally to prevent the binding of SARS-CoV-2 Several natural polysaccharides have been designed as nanomaterials for drug delivery systems, such as antiviral agent.
These nanomaterials may be not only used to treat the virus, but also to modulate the immune responses 7. Algal, bacterial, and fungal polysaccharides and sulfated polysaccharides showed pharmaceutical properties due to their biological activities as mentioned above.
These polysaccharides could be used as bioactive supplements in foods and could enrich nutritional quality. Indeed, some of these polysaccharides have been granted as GRAS status by the US FDA, so they can consume to enhance immune response and reduce the severity of viral diseases, especially COVID Some microbial polysaccharides have prebiotic properties, which enhance the proliferation of beneficial intestinal microflora, especially Bifidobacterium spp.
In addition, some algal polysaccharides alginate and laminaran could be fermented by gut microbiota and promoted the growth of Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium , and Lactobacillus species When microbial polysaccharides were consumed, they could enhance the host's immune response and modulate the microbial community microflora.
The microbes degrade the polysaccharides into short-chain fatty acids SCFA such as acetic, propionic, and butyric acids. SCFA show benefit for the maintenance intestinal cells and modulating of the immune system Microbial polysaccharides have the potential to be bioactive ingredients that can be added into foods or food products to enhance the nutritional quality of foods by modulating consumers' immune response.
Therefore, the biological activities of foods supplemented with these polysaccharides should be investigated. Microorganisms produce various types of polysaccharides with unique characteristics and can be produced on a large scale with controllable conditions.
Polysaccharides and sulfated polysaccharides from different microorganism and algae species have different characteristics and levels of bioactivities. Their constituents, structural conformations, MW, and functional groups significantly influence their bioactivities.
To enhance their activities, physical, chemical, or biological modifications might be beneficial. Some sulfated polysaccharides obtained from microbes and algae have been approved as GRAS, which may be used as bioactive ingredients adding in food products to prevent viruses.
Many microbial polysaccharides are safe, biocompatible, biodegradable, and easily available. Therefore, the intake of proper dosage of the right polysaccharides may modulate physiological functions to prevent viral diseases and decrease their damage.
They may be an alternative therapy to treat COVID patients. In the future, the development of polysaccharides as functional food products should be explored. For foods supplemented with bioactive polysaccharides, more pharmaceutical investigations and clinical evidence are required to analyze their antiviral and immune-enhancing effects.
The mechanisms that occur in the food products against viral infections should also be further investigated. PS, TC, CT, and SY contributed to conception and supervised the project. WC, NL, KJ, and SS contributed in doing literature searches and wrote the manuscript draft.
YP, PR, SW, JR, FB, and PS equally revised and approved the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final draft manuscript.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the National Research Council of Thailand NRCT through the Royal Golden Jubilee Ph. Program, Thailand grant no.
Additionally, this work was also partially financially supported along with in-kind support by the Biotechnology Program of the Graduate School of Chiang Mai University; the Cluster of Agro Bio-Circular-Green Industry Agro BCG Faculty of Agro-Industry; and Chiang Mai University.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers.
Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. Dimmock NJ, Easton AJ, Leppard KN.
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El Khadem HS. Haldar et al. The materials were challenged with two common pathogenic bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli and two different strains of influenza A virus. The study showed that all of the PEI derivatives presented biocidal properties, with some variances in virucidal effectiveness dependent on size molecular-weight of PEIs 90 , 98 Differently charged derivatives of linear PEI zwitter-ionic, anionic and neutral were also tested Their results suggested that both positively and negatively charged sites of the PEI are able to attack the viral membrane, with the negative charge having a predominant effect.
The study was expanded to other viruses including human and avian influenza viruses with wild-type strains and drug-resistant ones. The practical application of the N , N -dodecyl, methyl-PEI in a prophylactic modality as a coating on latex condoms was demonstrated by Larson et al.
Klibanov et al. have developed a series of water-insoluble, hydrophobic polycations PEI-based polymeric material coatings, with biocidal properties 98 , , Surfaces can be either covalently derivatised with the polymer or simply painted 98 with it.
Low pH conditions can have a sterilizing effect. Therefore, materials able to create an acidic environment can present biocidal properties. Peddinti et al. The polymer was a thermoplastic elastomeric poly[tertbutylstyrene- b- ethylene-alt-propylene -b- styrenesulfonate -b- ethylene-alt-propylene -b-tert-butylstyrene] TESET.
baumannii, K. pneumoniae and E. Irrespective of the degree of sulfonation, the TESETS were shown to be effective in the inactivation of enveloped viruses—VSV and Influenza A. They postulate that the TESET mechanism of action is the ability to rapidly and significantly lower the pH of pathogen suspensions leading to degradation of the protective outer membrane, protein denaturation and inactivation.
The biocidal properties are activated by the simple presence of water and their effectiveness reduces upon repeated exposure to the suspensions. However, it was demonstrated, the materials can be fully rejuvenated by exposure to acid and removal of cations complexed with sulfonic acid groups. Since the ROS mechanism of action is non-specific, the approach could be applicable to a wide range of pathogens.
The researchers examined six Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria S. aureus, vancomycin-resistant E. faecium, E. coli, A. baumannii and K. pneumonia and two viruses, including VSV, and HAd-5 and demonstrated the photoreactive polymer being highly effective against those pathogens.
Wang et al. They tested antiviral properties of these materials on two model non-enveloped bacteriophages—T4 and MS2. Most of the employed compounds exhibited high inactivation ability against MS2 phage and moderate inactivation against T4 in dark conditions.
Under irradiation with UV light significant antiviral ability was observed for all the tested compounds against both bacteriophages. In some cases, especially with T4, the virucidal activity was significantly enhanced in comparison to the experiments in the dark.
Exposure to UV light results in the generation of ROS causing photochemically induced damage of the phage capsid protein. Hydrogels are three-dimensional networks of hydrophilic polymers, with the ability to take up a large amount of water while maintaining the 3D structure They can be created from a range of different polymers but the crosslinking of water-soluble polymers such as poly ethylene glycol , polyacrylamide, poly vinyl alcohol , etc.
seems most convenient and attractive , , Some natural polymers such as agar or gelatine have been also utilised in hydrogels , Due to their non-toxicity and biocompatibility hydrogels are already used in many biomedical applications including contact lenses, wound dressings, coatings on medical devices or hygiene products.
The use of hydrogels goes above the biomedical applications as they are widely present in different everyday products including, e. As an example, monocarpin is a highly efficient antiviral monoglyceride, shown to be effective against enveloped viruses, including VSV, HSV, visna virus and HIV Thorgeirsdottir et al.
Formulations with different ratios of propylene glycol co-solvent in either 5 or 7. In all cases, the gels showed up to 1 log 10 greater reduction in viral titer 6.
The researchers postulate that the hydrogel structure aids the antiviral properties of monocarpin by forming bonds with the viral envelope leading to increased contact between the virucide and the virus. Meng et al. Upon rehydration in physiological pH catechol undergoes autooxidation, generating hydrogen peroxide H 2 O 2 , thus exerting biocidal properties.
It is suggested that the biocidal mechanisms of H 2 O 2 come from its oxidizing properties and reactivity with bacterial or viral biomolecules such as proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, etc. For the enveloped BVDV the infectivity reduction was even greater of 4—5 log Ag or Au being most commonly used and are well known for their high biocidal activity 88 , Nanoparticles of metal-oxides , , particularly TiO 2 , , ZnO , and CeO 2 , , have been also found to display biocidal properties Biopolymers are a class of naturally derived materials.
Due to their biocompatibility and intrinsic antimicrobial properties several biopolymers have been used, for example, as an attractive material in food packaging.
While their antimicrobial properties have been documented , little attention has been given to their antiviral properties. Chitosan poly-β-1,4-glucosamine is an aminated polysaccharide, formed by acid alkylation of crustaceans chitin poly-β - N- acetyl-d-glucosamine Chitosan has been extensively studied for its antimicrobial properties and potential uses in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, agricultural and food industries , , There are also reports of antiviral properties of chitosan and its modified forms, which have been examined on a range of animal and plant viruses.
For example, in the report by Ai et al. In another study by Davis et al. derived 3,6-O-sulfated chitosan sulfated chitosan was shown, by Gao et al. Li et al. The SL-chitosan binds to hemagglutinin protein on the surface of an influenza particle, which is responsible for viral attachment to the host cell surface via binding with surface glycoligands such as SL.
Guo et al. CytPM-COS effectively inhibited tobacco mosaic virus TMV , suppressed viral RNA and capsid protein accumulation and triggered production of ROS and induced upregulation of various defence responsive genes in the tobacco plants.
Davydova et al. Fucoidan is an anionic sulfated polysaccharide extracted from brown marine algae. It was recently demonstrated that sulfated polysaccharides exhibit antiviral activities both in vivo and in vitro and, since they have low cytotoxicity in comparison to other antiviral drugs, there is interest in their use in drug and gene delivery systems and wound and burn healing formulations As reported by Ponce et al.
As postulated by Bernard et al. It was also tested by Wyde et al. Hidari et al. They showed the glycopolymers exerted viral inhibition properties against human and swine influenza viruses. The effectiveness of the inhibition was dependant on and growing with the number of lactosamine repeats on the glycopolymers.
Similar to the SL-chitosan described earlier, the lactosamine-glycopolymers bind to hemagglutinin protein acting as competitive inhibitors that prevent virus entry to the host cell, which seem to be their predominant antiviral mechanism.
Avian and equine viruses were also tested, yet no inhibition was observed by any of the lactosamine-glycopolymers.
Sequence analysis and molecular modelling highlighted that amino acid substitution of haemagglutinin along with core carbohydrate and sialyl linkages on the receptor glycoconjugate have an impact on its antiviral properties Mucins are highly glycosylated polymeric proteins.
They are the main constituents of mucus—a porous biopolymer matrix produced by epithelial tissues in most animals, which serves as the first line of defence against many pathogens, including viruses.
Lieleg et al. showed the ability of isolated porcine gastric mucins to block human pathogenic viruses like human papillomavirus HPV, Merkel cell polyomavirus MCV , and a strain of influenza A. In this study, a mucin layer was applied on three different cell lines, which were next incubated with the viruses.
It was demonstrated that the mucin isolates were highly effective in blocking the viruses from infecting the cells. The researchers speculated that the antiviral mechanism of the mucins lies in the trapping of virus particles in the mucin matrix, caused by multiple low-affinity bonds between the mucin sugar groups and the virus capsids.
The efficiency of mucin shielding layer towards viral infection was also shown to be dependent on the mucin concentration, increasing with increased mucin content. AMPs are short, usually positively charged oligopeptides with diverse structures and functions.
They play a fundamental role in the innate immune system response to injuries and infections. AMPs are expressed in a wide variety of tissues including skin, eyes, oral cavity, ears, airway, lung, female reproductive tract, cervical-vaginal fluid, intestines, and urinary tract , Defensins and cathelicidin LL37, derived from humans have been extensively studied for its antibacterial effects but more recently anti-viral properties are being elucidated.
The Antimicrobial Peptide Database APD contains more than AMPs, among which are AMPs with antiviral activities. A few chosen examples are briefly described below.
There are reports of incorporating AMPs into other materials, which have been assessed for their antimicrobial properties , , However, methods to graft or adsorb AMPs on the surface to fabricate, for example, medically useful products are required to fully realise their potential.
Yu et al. The peptides inhibited the infection by targeting the endosomal cell-entry step by impairing cathepsin B-mediated processing of Ebola virus glycoprotein. AMPs synthesized by incorporating D-amino acids cannot be degraded by intracellular enzymes and exhibit a higher degree of activity in the early stages of viral infection rather than during its replication stage.
In different reports, Barlow et al. Cathlecidin derived peptides GF and BMAP have also shown efficacy against zika virus and inhibition is through direct inactivation of the virus by the interruption and damage to the viral membrane but also, indirectly, via the inhibition of interferon signalling pathway Defensins are small cysteine-rich peptides, well known for their host defence and immune signalling activities.
They have been also recognised for their antiviral properties, reported in a number of papers , , In one example, neutrophil α-defensins have been shown, by Daher et al. Non-enveloped viruses, echovirus type 11 and reovirus type 3 have been also tested but seemed unaffected by the action of defensins.
The difference in susceptibility to inactivation between enveloped and naked viruses suggest the lipid envelope as an interaction site between the peptide and the virus.
It was also noted that the effect of defensins on viral infection appears to be specific to the type of defensin peptide, virus and a target host cell. In addition to the direct effect on the virus and the cell, defensins act as immune modulators that may play a role in viral transmission Lactoferrin is an iron-binding glycoprotein, which has exhibited antiviral activity against a wide range of human and animal viruses both DNA and RNA , including hepatitis C HCV through the direct binding of the peptide to the HCV particles , HSV through inhibition of virus-host interactions, or through inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus HIV replication in host cell.
To other reported lactoferrin-affected viruses belong poliovirus , calicivirus , rotavirus and SARS coronavirus Lactoferrin prevents entry of virus in the host cell and its antiviral mechanisms vary among viruses, where it may bind either directly to the virus particle or to the host cell receptor or coreceptor , , Hepcidin, a amino-acid antimicrobial peptide LEAP-1 , is predominately expressed by liver hepatocytes and is the principal regulator of iron absorption The effects of hepcidin on the pathogenesis of viral infections is not well understood; however, expression of hepcidin has been reported following a number of human and murine viral infections It was postulated that hepcidin expression may be upregulated at later stages of infection when iron levels are elevated.
Increased hepcidin levels in HIV-1 positive plasma donors of both acute as well as transitioning to chronic infections were reported. HIV replication is iron-dependent and the hepcidin-induced sequestering of iron in cells such as lymphocytes and macrophages is a highly favourable condition for HIV pathogensis Rajanbabu et al.
The presence of TH decreased the number of plaques formed by the cytopathic effect of IPNV in the CHSE cells. In addition, the presence of hepcidine showed, further, modulation of interleukin, annexin and other viral-responsive gene expressions and, hence, demonstrated immunomodulatory functions.
There is a requirement to improve the delivery and stability of these peptides whilst retaining their functionality and a few strategies have been proposed. As an example, in the study by Zhang et al.
In vitro antiviral activity of this nanoformulation against both HCV and HIV were retained. In vivo incorporation was also able to decrease the viral load in mice transplanted with human lymphocytes and HIVinfected A subsequent study of using the same nanoformulation in a galactosylated form, was tested as liver-specific delivery system.
It exhibited prominent advantages to prevent HCV association with lipid droplets and was able to suppress the intracellular expression of HCV proteins in an in vitro assessment. In addition, in vivo assessment indicated preferential accumulation in the liver of the tested animals.
Another strategy to prevent protease degradation is to substitute L amino acids with D-amino acids. Jackman et al. The peptide showed promise in tackling Zika virus-infected mice, reducing viral load and inflammation in the brain.
Subsequent study by Camargoes et al. Graphene is a two-dimensional layer of sp 2 -hybridised carbon atoms, arranged in a hexagonal lattice, that has demonstrated extraordinary properties, such as high electrical and thermal conductivity It is being used in commercial products, like nanocomposites and electronics.
This latter nanoscale particulate material can also be functionalised with different surface chemistries, leading to derivatives such as graphene oxide GO and reduced graphene oxide rGO , which have varying amounts of oxygen-containing functional groups attached to the basal plane GO has been shown to act as an antiviral agent, suppressing the infection of several different viruses, including pseudorabies, tomato bushy stunt virus, respiratory syncytial virus and HSV , , , The structure of the flakes, with their high surface-to-volume ratios and sharp edges, has proved destructive to viruses and their inherent negative charge has been attributed to the observed virucidal properties , , , In some cases, GO has been used in partnership with other known antiviral materials such as silver nanoparticles or sulfonated magnetic nanoparticles to achieve antiviral activity Easy chemical modification of GO and rGO with different functional groups that are already understood to have a detrimental effect on viruses, such as polyglycerol sulfate and beta-cyclodextrin, allows further improvement in antiviral properties.
While electrostatic interactions between polyglycerol sulfate and virus particles trigger the binding of graphene to viruses, preventing viral adhesion to the host cell, alkyl chains induce a high antiviral activity by secondary hydrophobic interactions However, these effects on viruses have only been demonstrated for GO flakes when used in assays, rather than on surfaces.
Graphene has been shown to have antimicrobial properties, with the reduction in Escherichia coli E. coli proven in different studies The physical interaction of different graphene derivatives graphite, graphite oxide, rGO and GO is understood to affect the cellular membrane integrity, metabolic processes and morphology of microorganisms However, it has also been demonstrated that different types of carbon-based 2D materials can have different effects on E.
coli , with some surfaces actually promoting the proliferation of the bacterium and the formation of a dense biofilms This confirms the issue that a lack of material characterisation can lead to very different performance of graphene-enhanced surfaces than expected.
At the same time, commercially available face masks have now entered the market that are antibacterial and contain nanoscale graphitic flakes. At the same time, these length scales were found to be harmless to larger mammalian cells.
In contrast, a CVD graphene layer grown horizontally on the surface did not show the same antimicrobial properties. However, this is a rapidly developing field and CVD-grown graphene typically uses a copper catalyst surface for growth, with high coverage of single-layer graphene on a copper surface already achievable in industrial-scale, roll-to-roll processes , Graphene may therefore be a complementary addition to already successful copper surfaces, or polymers to enhance their antiviral properties.
Composites offer an attractive strategy in fabricating useful materials with antiviral properties. Combining different classes of materials or incorporating antiviral moieties, e.
Silver nanoparticles AgNPs are known for their excellent antiviral properties. However, differently to silver in its metal bulk form, using free AgNPs, due to their size and properties, poses several drawbacks such as particle aggregation, cytotoxicity or genotoxic damage by inhalation or ingestion into human body in larger quantities.
Park et al. They suggested that the major antiviral mechanism of this material was its interaction with the components present on the viral membrane. Martinez-Abad et al. studied the incorporation of 0. The PLA-silver films showed antibacterial and antiviral activity in vitro, with increasing effects at higher silver concentrations when tested against Salmonella and feline calicivirus.
Mori et al. The antiviral activity was evaluated from the decreased TCID 50 ratio of viral suspensions between composite-treated samples and controls. Composites with different sizes of AgNPs were tested and stronger antiviral activity was observed for smaller particles for comparable concentrations of incorporated AgNPs.
For all the tested particle sizes, the antiviral activity increased with increasing concentration of the particles in the composite. In another study with AgNPs composite , chitin nanofibers sheets CNFSs with immobilized AgNPs also showed antiviral efficacy against H1N1 influenza A virus.
Tyo et al. The composites were fabricated from polycaprolactone PCL fibres surrounding polyethylene oxide PEO fibres that incorporated methoxy poly ethylene glycol -b-poly lactide-co-glycolide mPEG-PLGA GRFT NPs.
The efficacy of GRFT NP-EFs was assessed using human immunodeficiency virus HIV-1 pseudovirus assays, demonstrating complete in vitro protection against HIV-1 infection.
Monmaturapoj et al. They speculated this composite as a promising material for use in antimicrobial filtration materials in e. medical face masks. In another study with titanium dioxide, Amirkhanov et al.
In a study by Grover et al. Even though the test lacked testing on a broad virus spectrum, it shows the potential of perhydrolase acyl donor substrates, such as propylene glycol diacetate PGD , glyceryl triacetate or ethyl acetate, to engineer antiviral materials with potential use in antiviral paints in hospital to reduce the propagation of infection.
In Table 3 , we provide a summary of materials with antiviral properties with, where reported, the mechanisms of action and persistence.
Antiviral materials and coatings have very broad applications, from antiviral food packaging and food contact surfaces for controlling human enteric viruses , to health products for prevention of sexually transmitted infections to PPE in the healthcare sector.
The applications dictate the different properties of materials. For example, in food production and retail, the antiviral materials cannot be toxic Materials used in public transport need to be stable, durable and non-flammable.
Here, we give an overview of practical applications of antiviral materials and coatings which are summarised in Table 4. Example applications in the context of a hospital setting are illustrated in Fig.
Four classes of surfaces are shown; a hard surfaces such as touch screens and door handles, b large area and infrastructure such as walls, floors and tables; c soft surfaces including textiles and ambulance interior and d PPE including masks, gloves, visors and coverings.
PPE is clearly a prime area of importance, to protect people from the risk of contact infection. As PPE includes facial masks or visors, protective suits, spill gowns, gloves, boot covers, goggles.
etc, it requires compatibility with a wide range of materials from woven fabrics, used in masks, to disposable aprons. However, generally the materials should be non-toxic and skin friendly. Masks and respirators are one of main application of antiviral materials since the primary transmission carriers for respiratory viruses are droplets and aerosols, which are released through a cough, sneeze or when speaking and even breathing.
During the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, face masks and respirators are often mandated in public areas to limit the spread of infections The conventional type of face masks and respirators composed of woven or non-woven fabric block the virus by filtration of aerosols and droplets.
However, the virus persists on the surface 40 , which leads to a risk due to incorrect wearing of masks or their reuse. Research has focused on developing self-cleaning masks by using different materials and technologies , especially nano-based materials and techniques, some of which are already available or close to the market.
One popular strategy is incorporating antiviral nanoparticles into fibrous membranes of the mask or depositing an ultrathin nanoparticle layer on the respirators. Examples include copper oxide and silver nanoparticles incorporated into nanofiber membranes or the fabric of masks , Another way is to make masks superhydrophobic, so that virus-laden droplets would not be able to remain on the masks.
A possible approach is depositing a few layers of graphene onto commercial surgical masks Other super-hydrophobic materials, such as fluorinated polymers and metallic nanowires, have also the potential to be used in respiratory masks Antiviral compounds incorporated to other types of PPE, such as apron or gloves, would further reduce the risk of infection for health care workers.
Many antiviral materials, already used in masks and respirators, e. Some drawbacks of utilising metal ions or metallic nanoparticles in PPE or other everyday-use surfaces should be considered when designing, manufacturing and implementing the products.
Firstly, ion leaching can occur leading, eventually, to the loss of antiviral and antimicrobial properties of the material , Secondly, there is a potential risk to the environment that metallic nanoparticles can exert after being released from products with, for example, domestic or industrial wastewater , By incorporating daylight-active chemicals into rechargeable nanofibrous membranes RNMs , photoactive RNMs could act by releasing ROS to provide biocidal functions under dim light or dark conditions and store the biocidal activity under light irradiation, which could be potentially incorporated as a surface protective layer of PPE.
There have been many advances to improve the antibacterial properties of medical devices especially those that go into the wet or humid environment of the body e.
catheters, tracheal and laryngeal tubes. Biopolymers and biocompatible polymer coatings could also be used to reduce viral transmission. Another application of antiviral materials is the use of antiviral surfaces or surface coatings in public settings such as healthcare facilities or public transport system, to slow down the spread of virus through fomites.
This application requires durable materials with long-term weeks or even months antiviral efficiency. Similar to PPE, metal ions such as silver and copper are popular candidates for use in public areas. Deposition of silver clusters, through the photoreduction of a silver salt, directly on the surface could be implemented, e.
The coatings based on polymers, incorporating metallic nanoparticles or metal ions, could protect the metal from oxidation and corrosion and could also be engineered for slow release of metal ions, providing long-lasting antiviral properties. A non-release approach, enhancing the durability of antiviral coatings, was proposed by Haldar et al.
Some of the materials discussed in this review can be applied as a paint and these could be applied to a wide variety of surfaces from walls, doors and cabinets to equipment and other hard surfaces. The ubiquitous touch screen is found everywhere, from personal mobile phones to medical equipment, and is notorious for harbouring bacteria and viruses.
Many of the materials, such as copper, discussed in this review could be potentially used in thin-film coatings on glass surfaces. Door handles, taps and other frequently touched hard surfaces could similarly benefit from metal coatings such as copper.
An alternative way is to generate nanostructured topography on industrially relevant surfaces that can physically inactivate viruses. Recently, Hasan et al. With excellent durability, this strategy could be potentially used in hospitals and other public areas. The aim of this review is to provide an overview and better understanding of the current state of knowledge, research direction and practices in the area of antiviral materials and coatings.
We focus on the reported mechanisms of action. The repertoire of materials with antiviral and antimicrobial properties is large and varied. Adding to that further possibilities of design and engineering of new chemistries, provides many options.
Antimicrobial properties of these materials are widely studied but reports on antiviral properties are much fewer and this is a gap that should be considered. As can be seen, there is a significant resource of existing literature on viral persistence on different surfaces.
However, a quantitative or even semi-quantitative analysis of the data is hampered by a lack of equivalence in the ways that persistence is measured or a consistent set of virus classes that are used to challenge the materials. There are existing ISO, ASTM, US Federal and EU standards on the measurement of antiviral activity but a lack of use in the literature.
The most frequently used method is the end point dilution assay TCID 50 , though as noted earlier, the results are often difficult to interpret and are subjective.
There appears to be a compelling need for systematic studies of different material types, challenged with specific virus strains of representative classes enveloped, non-enveloped etc. using quantitative approaches. Furthermore, a reference standard surface, that could be used in an intercomparison study, would greatly benefit the community by providing a base-line of repeatability within a lab and replicability between laboratories.
We believe that such studies would considerably increase the value and re-use of data created in future studies. Copper is one of the most effective and simplest of the materials in this review and would appear to be easily integrated, e. Touch-screen displays could have thin films containing copper.
However, increased exposure to copper would need careful consideration in terms of other health effects. Indeed, unwanted environmental effects caused by leaching may be one of the most significant issues to be considered in the deployment of antiviral surfaces.
Natural products may provide the right balance of antiviral efficacy and environmental impact. It is clear that material science can play a very important role in the development of conceptual and practical measures to slow infectious outbreaks. Both existing and innovative broad-spectrum antiviral strategies should be considered, which could contribute to the challenge and preparedness of future viral pandemics.
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Currently, viral infection is the All-natural food recipes serious health Pre-race nutrition planning Anti-viral properties causing unexpected higher rate of death globally. Many Anti-viral properties are proeprties yet Porperties, such as corona virus-2 SARS-CoV-2 Antii-viral, human Anti-viral properties virus HIVhepatitis virus, human papilloma virus and so others. Properites, the Anti-viral properties and Anti-virwl responses to resistant strains pproperties synthetic antiviral drugs have reinforced the search of effective and alternative treatment options, such as plant-derived antiviral drug molecules. Therefore, in the present review, an attempt has been taken to summarize the medicinal plants reported for exhibiting antiviral activities available in Bangladesh along with discussing the mechanistic insights into their bioactive components against three most hazardous viruses, namely SARS-CoV-2, HIV, and HBV. The review covers 46 medicinal plants with antiviral activity from 25 families. Among the reported 79 bioactive compounds having antiviral activities isolated from these plants, about 37 of them have been reported for significant activities against varieties of viruses.
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