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Role of antioxidants in heart health -

GISSI-Prevenzione Investigators. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. The Lancet. Milman U, Blum S, Shapira C, Aronson D, Miller-Lotan R, Anbinder Y, Alshiek J, Bennett L, Kostenko M, Landau M, Keidar S.

Vitamin E supplementation reduces cardiovascular events in a subgroup of middle-aged individuals with both type 2 diabetes mellitus and the haptoglobin genotype: a prospective double-blinded clinical trial. Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.

Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Manson JE, Stampfer M, Rosner B, Cook NR, Belanger C, LaMotte F, Gaziano JM, Ridker PM, Willett W. Lack of effect of long-term supplementation with beta carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease. New England Journal of Medicine.

Hercberg S, Galan P, Preziosi P, Bertrais S, Mennen L, Malvy D, Roussel AM, Favier A, Briançon S. The SU. MAX Study: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the health effects of antioxidant vitamins and minerals. Cook NR, Albert CM, Gaziano JM, Zaharris E, MacFadyen J, Danielson E, Buring JE, Manson JE.

Marchese ME, Kumar R, Colangelo LA, Avila PC, Jacobs DR, Gross M, Sood A, Liu K, Cook-Mills JM. The vitamin E isoforms α-tocopherol and γ-tocopherol have opposite associations with spirometric parameters: the CARDIA study.

Respiratory research. Berdnikovs S, Abdala-Valencia H, McCary C, Somand M, Cole R, Garcia A, Bryce P, Cook-Mills JM. Isoforms of vitamin E have opposing immunoregulatory functions during inflammation by regulating leukocyte recruitment.

The Journal of Immunology. Duffield-Lillico AJ, Reid ME, Turnbull BW, Combs GF, Slate EH, Fischbach LA, Marshall JR, Clark LC. Baseline characteristics and the effect of selenium supplementation on cancer incidence in a randomized clinical trial: a summary report of the Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Trial.

Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Biomarkers. Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E, beta carotene, and zinc for age-related macular degeneration and vision loss: AREDS report no.

Archives of ophthalmology. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E and beta carotene for age-related cataract and vision loss: AREDS report no.

Archives of Ophthalmology. Richer S, Stiles W, Statkute L, Pulido J, Frankowski J, Rudy D, Pei K, Tsipursky M, Nyland J. Double-masked, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of lutein and antioxidant supplementation in the intervention of atrophic age-related macular degeneration: the Veterans LAST study Lutein Antioxidant Supplementation Trial.

Optometry-Journal of the American Optometric Association. Bartlett HE, Eperjesi F. Effect of lutein and antioxidant dietary supplementation on contrast sensitivity in age-related macular disease: a randomized controlled trial.

European journal of clinical nutrition. Chew EY, Clemons TE, SanGiovanni JP, Danis RP, Ferris FL, Elman MJ, Antoszyk AN, Ruby AJ, Orth D, Bressler SB, Fish GE. JAMA ophthalmology. Evans JR, Lawrenson JG. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Christen WG, Glynn RJ, Gaziano JM, Darke AK, Crowley JJ, Goodman PJ, Lippman SM, Lad TE, Bearden JD, Goodman GE, Minasian LM.

Age-related cataract in men in the selenium and vitamin e cancer prevention trial eye endpoints study: a randomized clinical trial. Kryscio RJ, Abner EL, Caban-Holt A, Lovell M, Goodman P, Darke AK, Yee M, Crowley J, Schmitt FA.

JAMA neurology. Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, Simonetti RG, Gluud C. Mortality in randomized trials of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention: systematic review and meta-analysis. Antioxidant supplements for prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseases.

Cochrane database of systematic reviews. Albanes D, Heinonen OP, Taylor PR, Virtamo J, Edwards BK, Rautalahti M, Hartman AM, Palmgren J, Freedman LS, Haapakoski J, Barrett MJ. α-Tocopherol and β-carotene supplements and lung cancer incidence in the Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study: effects of base-line characteristics and study compliance.

JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute. Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, Balmes J, Cullen MR, Glass A, Keogh JP, Meyskens Jr FL, Valanis B, Williams Jr JH, Barnhart S. Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease.

New England journal of medicine. Hercberg S, Ezzedine K, Guinot C, Preziosi P, Galan P, Bertrais S, Estaquio C, Briançon S, Favier A, Latreille J, Malvy D. Antioxidant supplementation increases the risk of skin cancers in women but not in men. The Journal of nutrition. Klein EA, Thompson IM, Tangen CM, Crowley JJ, Lucia MS, Goodman PJ, Minasian LM, Ford LG, Parnes HL, Gaziano JM, Karp DD.

Vitamin E and the risk of prostate cancer: the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial SELECT. Joshipura KJ, Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Rimm EB, Speizer FE, Colditz G, Ascherio A, Rosner B, Spiegelman D, Willett WC. The effect of fruit and vegetable intake on risk for coronary heart disease.

There also are resveratrol supplements. However, they might cause side effects. And research suggests that the body can't absorb most of the resveratrol in supplements. Many studies have shown that drinking regular, limited amounts of any type of alcohol helps the heart.

It's not just red wine. It's thought that alcohol:. Researchers keep studying whether red wine and other alcoholic drinks can help the heart. Those who drink regular, limited amounts of alcohol, including red wine, seem to have a lower risk of heart disease.

Drinking regular, limited amounts is called drinking in moderation. But there might be other reasons for the lower risk of heart disease in people who drink red wine in moderation. For instance, they might eat a healthier diet and be more active than those who don't drink red wine.

And they might have higher incomes and better access to health care as well. More research is needed about whether red wine is better for the heart than other types of alcohol, such as beer or hard liquor.

The American Heart Association and National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute advise against starting to drink alcohol just to prevent heart disease. Some people who drink alcohol have trouble stopping, called addiction. And drinking alcohol can cause other health problems or make them worse.

If you have questions about the plusses and risks of alcohol, talk with your health care professional. There is a problem with information submitted for this request. Sign up for free and stay up to date on research advancements, health tips, current health topics, and expertise on managing health.

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Request Appointment. Red wine and resveratrol: Good for your heart? Products and services. By Mayo Clinic Staff.

Thank you for subscribing! Sorry something went wrong with your subscription Please, try again in a couple of minutes Retry. Show references Tangney CC, et al. Cardiovascular benefits and risks of moderate alcohol consumption. Accessed June 15, Mukamal KJ. Overview of the risks and benefits of alcohol consumption.

Libby P, et al. Cardiomyopathies induced by drugs or toxins. In: Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. N Eng J Med ; : —7. West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Group. West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study: identification of high-risk groups and comparison with other cardiovascular intervention trials.

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Thrombosis prevention trial: randomised trial of low-density oral anticoagulation with warfarin and low-dose aspirin in the primary prevention of ischaemic heart disease in men at increased risk. Karjalainen J, Kujala UM, Kaprio J, Sarna S, Viitasalo M.

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Br Med J ; : —7. Shaper AG, Wannamethee GS, Walker M. Body weight: implications for the prevention of coronary heart disease,stroke and diabetes mellitus in a cohort study of middle aged men. Harris TB, Launer LJ, Madans J, Feldman JJ.

Cohort study of effect of being overweight and change in weight on risk of coronary heart disease in old age. Br Med J ; : —4. Powell K, Pratt M. Physical activity and health. Eagles C, Gulati R, Martin U. Non-pharmacological modification of cardiac risk factors: part 1.

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The role of diet. J Clin Pharm Ther ; 22 : 99 — Greenberg ER, Sporn MB. Antioxidant vitamins, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. Maxwell SRJ, Lip GYH.

Free radicals and antioxidants in cardiovascular disease. Br J Clin Pharmacol ; 44 : — Stephens N. Antioxidant therapy for ischaemic heart disease: where do we stand? Diaz MN, Frei B, Vita JA, Keaney JF. Antioxidants and atherosclerotic heart disease.

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Oxford, Oxford University Press, Oxygen radicals: a commonsense look at their nature and medical importance. Lancet ; I : —9. Gutteridge JMC. Lipid peroxidation and antioxidants as biomarkers of tissue damage. Clin Chem ; 41 : — Steinberg D, Parsatharathy S, Carew T, Khoo J, Witztum J. Beyond cholesterol: Modifications of low-density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenicity.

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Proc Natl Acad Sci ; 90 : — Free radicals, antioxidants, and human disease: curiosity, cause, or consequence? Lancet ; : —4. Esterbaur H, Gebicki J, Puhl H, Jurgens G. The role of lipid peroxidation and antioxidants in oxidative modification of LDL.

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Ann Med ; 23 : — Reaven PD, Khouw A, Beltz WF, Parthasarathy S, Witztum JL. Effect of dietary antioxidant combinations in humans. Protection of LDL by vitamin E but not by beta-carotene. Arterioscler Thromb ; 13 , — Meister A.

On the antioxidant effects of ascorbic acid and glutathione. Biochem Pharmacol ; 44 : — Packer JE, Slater TF, Wilson RL. Direct observation of free radical interaction between vitamin E and vitamin C.

Nature ; : Freisleben H, Packer L. Free-radical scavenging activities, interactions and recycling of antioxidants. Biochem Soc Trans ; 21 , — Price JF, Fowkes FGR. Antioxidant vitamins in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Eur Heart J ; 18 : — Stephens NG, Parsons A, Schofield PM, Kelly F, Cheeseman K, Mitchinson MJ.

Randomised controlled trial of vitamin E in patients with coronary disease: Cambridge Heart Antioxidant Study CHAOS. Lancet ; : —6.

High concentrations of oxygen radicals in Role of antioxidants in heart health body antioxifants stress have been linked to the exacerbation Quench refreshing hydration atherosclerosis and Role of antioxidants in heart health the onset of Antioxidantz disease. At the same time, observation heaet have consistently indicated that antioxidant micronutrients in the Visceral fat and inflammation could have a protective antioxidanhs in the context of cardiovascular disease. It is evident that in the longer term the antioxidant enzymes synthesized by the body itself are not sufficient on their own to provide protection against the harmful effects of free radicals. Therefore antioxidants in the diet, especially vitamins C and E and beta-carotene, play an important role in prevention. In ideal circumstances the unavoidable occurrence of free radicals and the protective effect of antioxidants synthesized by the body and ingested in the diet are in balance. The effects of free radicals.

Role of antioxidants in heart health -

Vitamin E supplementation reduces cardiovascular events in a subgroup of middle-aged individuals with both type 2 diabetes mellitus and the haptoglobin genotype: a prospective double-blinded clinical trial. Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology. Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Manson JE, Stampfer M, Rosner B, Cook NR, Belanger C, LaMotte F, Gaziano JM, Ridker PM, Willett W.

Lack of effect of long-term supplementation with beta carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease. New England Journal of Medicine. Hercberg S, Galan P, Preziosi P, Bertrais S, Mennen L, Malvy D, Roussel AM, Favier A, Briançon S. The SU.

MAX Study: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the health effects of antioxidant vitamins and minerals. Cook NR, Albert CM, Gaziano JM, Zaharris E, MacFadyen J, Danielson E, Buring JE, Manson JE.

Marchese ME, Kumar R, Colangelo LA, Avila PC, Jacobs DR, Gross M, Sood A, Liu K, Cook-Mills JM. The vitamin E isoforms α-tocopherol and γ-tocopherol have opposite associations with spirometric parameters: the CARDIA study.

Respiratory research. Berdnikovs S, Abdala-Valencia H, McCary C, Somand M, Cole R, Garcia A, Bryce P, Cook-Mills JM. Isoforms of vitamin E have opposing immunoregulatory functions during inflammation by regulating leukocyte recruitment. The Journal of Immunology.

Duffield-Lillico AJ, Reid ME, Turnbull BW, Combs GF, Slate EH, Fischbach LA, Marshall JR, Clark LC. Baseline characteristics and the effect of selenium supplementation on cancer incidence in a randomized clinical trial: a summary report of the Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Trial.

Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Biomarkers. Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E, beta carotene, and zinc for age-related macular degeneration and vision loss: AREDS report no.

Archives of ophthalmology. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E and beta carotene for age-related cataract and vision loss: AREDS report no. Archives of Ophthalmology.

Richer S, Stiles W, Statkute L, Pulido J, Frankowski J, Rudy D, Pei K, Tsipursky M, Nyland J. Double-masked, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of lutein and antioxidant supplementation in the intervention of atrophic age-related macular degeneration: the Veterans LAST study Lutein Antioxidant Supplementation Trial.

Optometry-Journal of the American Optometric Association. Bartlett HE, Eperjesi F. Effect of lutein and antioxidant dietary supplementation on contrast sensitivity in age-related macular disease: a randomized controlled trial. European journal of clinical nutrition.

Chew EY, Clemons TE, SanGiovanni JP, Danis RP, Ferris FL, Elman MJ, Antoszyk AN, Ruby AJ, Orth D, Bressler SB, Fish GE. JAMA ophthalmology.

Evans JR, Lawrenson JG. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Christen WG, Glynn RJ, Gaziano JM, Darke AK, Crowley JJ, Goodman PJ, Lippman SM, Lad TE, Bearden JD, Goodman GE, Minasian LM.

Age-related cataract in men in the selenium and vitamin e cancer prevention trial eye endpoints study: a randomized clinical trial. Kryscio RJ, Abner EL, Caban-Holt A, Lovell M, Goodman P, Darke AK, Yee M, Crowley J, Schmitt FA.

JAMA neurology. Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, Simonetti RG, Gluud C. Mortality in randomized trials of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention: systematic review and meta-analysis. Antioxidant supplements for prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseases.

Cochrane database of systematic reviews. Albanes D, Heinonen OP, Taylor PR, Virtamo J, Edwards BK, Rautalahti M, Hartman AM, Palmgren J, Freedman LS, Haapakoski J, Barrett MJ.

α-Tocopherol and β-carotene supplements and lung cancer incidence in the Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study: effects of base-line characteristics and study compliance.

JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute. Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, Balmes J, Cullen MR, Glass A, Keogh JP, Meyskens Jr FL, Valanis B, Williams Jr JH, Barnhart S.

Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. New England journal of medicine.

Hercberg S, Ezzedine K, Guinot C, Preziosi P, Galan P, Bertrais S, Estaquio C, Briançon S, Favier A, Latreille J, Malvy D. Antioxidant supplementation increases the risk of skin cancers in women but not in men. The Journal of nutrition. Klein EA, Thompson IM, Tangen CM, Crowley JJ, Lucia MS, Goodman PJ, Minasian LM, Ford LG, Parnes HL, Gaziano JM, Karp DD.

Vitamin E and the risk of prostate cancer: the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial SELECT. Joshipura KJ, Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Rimm EB, Speizer FE, Colditz G, Ascherio A, Rosner B, Spiegelman D, Willett WC.

The effect of fruit and vegetable intake on risk for coronary heart disease. Annals of internal medicine. Bhupathiraju SN, Wedick NM, Pan A, Manson JE, Rexrode KM, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Hu FB.

Quantity and variety in fruit and vegetable intake and risk of coronary heart disease. The American journal of clinical nutrition. If you are a Mayo Clinic patient, this could include protected health information. If we combine this information with your protected health information, we will treat all of that information as protected health information and will only use or disclose that information as set forth in our notice of privacy practices.

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Request Appointment. Healthy Lifestyle Antioxidants. Products and services. Slide show: Add antioxidants to your diet. Previous Next 1 of 5 Antioxidants: Why are they important? Thank you for subscribing! Sorry something went wrong with your subscription Please, try again in a couple of minutes Retry.

Show references Antioxidants and health. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Medicine. Accessed Nov. Antioxidants and cancer prevention. National Cancer Institute. Duyff RL. Vitamins and minerals. In: Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Complete Food and Nutrition Guide.

Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; Aune D, et al. Dietary intake and blood concentrations of antioxidants and the risk of cardiovascular disease, total cancer, and all-cause mortality: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies.

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Carlsen MH, et al. Protection of LDL by vitamin E but not by beta-carotene. Arterioscler Thromb ; 13 , — Meister A.

On the antioxidant effects of ascorbic acid and glutathione. Biochem Pharmacol ; 44 : — Packer JE, Slater TF, Wilson RL. Direct observation of free radical interaction between vitamin E and vitamin C.

Nature ; : Freisleben H, Packer L. Free-radical scavenging activities, interactions and recycling of antioxidants.

Biochem Soc Trans ; 21 , — Price JF, Fowkes FGR. Antioxidant vitamins in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Eur Heart J ; 18 : — Stephens NG, Parsons A, Schofield PM, Kelly F, Cheeseman K, Mitchinson MJ. Randomised controlled trial of vitamin E in patients with coronary disease: Cambridge Heart Antioxidant Study CHAOS.

Lancet ; : —6. Street DA, Constock GW, Salkeld RM, Schuep W, Klag MJ. Serum antioxidants and myocardial infarction.

Circulation ; 90 : — Enstrom JE, Kanim LE, Klein MA. Vitamin C intake and mortality among a sample of the United States population. Epidemiology ; 3 : — Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Ascherio A, Giovannucci E, Colditz GA, Willett WC.

Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary heart disease in men. N Engl J Med ; : —6. Gey KF, Stahelin HB, Eicholzer M. Poor plasma status of carotene and vitamin C is associated with higher mortality from ischaemic heart disease and stroke: Basel prospective study.

Clin Invest ; 71 : 3 —6. Renaud S, de Lorgeril M. Wine, alcohol, platelets and the French paradox for coronary heart disease. Gonça A, Bobak M. Albanian paradox, another example of protective effect of Mediterranean lifestyle.

Frankel EN, Kanner J, German GB, Parks E, Kinsella JE. Inhibition of oxidation of low-density lipoprotein by phenolic substances in red wine.

De Whalley CV, Rankin SM, Hoults JRS, et al. Flavonoids inhibit the oxidative modification of low density lipoproteins by macrophages. Biochem Pharmacol ; 39 : — Rimm EB, Giovannucci EL, Willett WC, Colditz GA, Ascherio A, Rosner B, et al Prospective study of alcohol consumption and risk of coronary artery disease in men.

Lancet ; : —8. Fuhrman B, Lavy A, Aviram M. Consumption of red wine with meals reduces the susceptibility of human plasma and low density lipoprotein to lipid peroxidation.

Am J Clin Nutr ; 61 : — Whitehead TP, Thorpe GHG, Maxwell SRJ. An enhanced chemiluminescent assay for antioxidant capacity in biological fluids. Anal Chim Acta ; : — Maxwell S, Cruickshank A, Thorpe G.

Red wine and antioxidant activity in serum. Abu-Amsha R, Croft KD, Puddey IB, Proudfoot JM, Beilin LJ. Phenolic content of various beverages determines the extent of human serum and low-density lipoprotein oxidation in vitro : identification and mechanism of action of some cinnamic acid derivatives from red wine.

Clinical Science ; 91 : — Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Sign In or Create an Account. Advertisement intended for healthcare professionals. Navbar Search Filter QJM: An International Journal of Medicine This issue Medicine and Health Books Journals Oxford Academic Mobile Enter search term Search.

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Free radicals and antioxidants. A protective role for antioxidants in CAD. Antioxidant activity of red wine. Antioxidant activity of a pharmaceutical preparation: a preliminary study. Journal Article. Antioxidant therapy for the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Nuttall , S. From the Clinical Pharmacology Section, Department of Medicine, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.

Nuttall, Department of Medicine, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TH. Oxford Academic. Google Scholar. PDF Split View Views. Cite Cite S. Select Format Select format. ris Mendeley, Papers, Zotero. enw EndNote. bibtex BibTex. txt Medlars, RefWorks Download citation.

Permissions Icon Permissions. Close Navbar Search Filter QJM: An International Journal of Medicine This issue Medicine and Health Books Journals Oxford Academic Enter search term Search. Introduction Coronary artery disease CAD is the major cause of death in developed countries.

Free radicals and antioxidants Oxidative damage Antioxidant therapy may inhibit atherosclerosis and thereby prevent the clinical complications of the disease such as CAD, and in particular, MI. Oxidative damage in cardiovascular disease The oxidative modification of circulating lipoproteins by free radicals, particularly low-density lipoproteins LDL , is important for the development of atherosclerosis.

A protective role for antioxidants in CAD Several large-scale epidemiological studies have observed that an increase in antioxidant level limits the clinical expression of CAD. Antioxidant activity of a pharmaceutical preparation: a preliminary study One such commercially available pharmaceutical preparation Seresis Pharmaton, Conclusions The potential role of antioxidants in the prevention and treatment of disease, particularly coronary artery, cerebrovascular and peripheral vascular disease, needs to be determined.

Figure 1. Open in new tab Download slide. Figure 2. The oxidation of low-density lipoprotein LDL. Figure 3. Figure 4. Br Med J. Ann Intern Med. N Eng J Med. N Engl J Med. J Clin Pharm Ther. Br J Clin Pharmacol. Nutrition Reviews. Clin Chem. Q J Med. Eur J Biochem. Proc Natl Acad Sci.

Thank you Role of antioxidants in heart health antioxjdants nature. You Improve skin tone and texture Role of antioxidants in heart health a browser healty with limited hearf for CSS. To obtain the best beart, we recommend you use a more up to heary browser or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. Cardiovascular disease CVDas the leading cause of death worldwide, is the collective term named for disorders afflicting the blood vessels and heart. Inflammation and enhanced oxidative stress have been shown as fundamental risk factors in the onset and progression of CVD. Recent experimental and epidemiologic evidence suggests that ni antioxidant vitamins appear Role of antioxidants in heart health be important in reducing the Expert-recommended supplement of coronary heart heealth CHD. These antioxidants include ascorbic acid vitamin Subcutaneous fat cells functionα-tocopherol antixoidants E antioxidqnts, Role of antioxidants in heart health, β-carotene, ubiquinone coenzyme Q 10bioflavonoids and selenium. This article reviews evidence linking the intake of nutritional supplements with the prevention of CHD and also provides clinical recommendations. Low-density lipoprotein LDL cholesterol is the primary lipoprotein found in atherosclerotic plaque. LDL oxidation is a key factor in the development of atherosclerosis. Antioxidants in plasma, the LDL particle and the cell wall reduce LDL oxidation. The major water-soluble antioxidant is vitamin C.