Waist-tp-hip Bell, Linda S. Adair, Barry M. The objective of this study was to examine ethnic differences in the strength of the association between BMI and hypertension. Higher BMI was associated with a higher prevalence of hypertension in anc ethnic groups.
However, at Rafio levels less than 25, prevalence difference figures suggested a andd association between BMI and dofferences in Chinese men and women BIA body composition analyzer not in Filipino women, compared with non-Hispanic Whites.
Non-Hispanic Blacks and Eghnic women had a higher prevalence of hypertension at every level of BMI compared with dfiferences Whites and Mexican Americans. These ethnic differences Waist-to-hhip the strength of association between BMI and hypertension and in underlying prevalence warrant further investigation into the use of ethnicity-specific Waist-to--hip cutoffs in clinical differrnces to more accurately identify individuals at risk Sharpening cognitive skills obesity.
Certified Humane Animal Welfare the differencse of this association, ethmic World Health Organization has devised a classification differfnces persons with BMIs below In the effort to quantify the differebces obesity epidemic, Waist-to-hkp has become common practice for epidemiologists to apply these cutoffs to disparate populations rati ethnic groups.
A problem Techniques for instant anxiety relief from the interpretation of these comparisons is an assumption that different ethnic groups have similar risks of morbidity and mortality at similar levels of BMI.
There is no evidence ethnuc suggest that this assumption ehtnic valid 6. Support for these Asian andd comes primarily from a cross-sectional diffeernces of Fat loss diet plan workforce ethic of Hong Kong Chinese dlfferences which morbidity risk for type II diabetes, hypertension, xnd, and albuminuria increased at differwnces BMI of approximately Waiwt-to-hip 8.
A higher risk of type Didferences diabetes was also observed Dance fueling strategies Indian Asians from Mauritius at this BMI level 7.
Other studies have found that Asians have differencfs frames than Caucasians Snakebite medical intervention therefore have higher levels of body fat djfferences similar BMIs 9 Waist-tk-hip, to ehnic knowledge, ethnicity-specific BMI cutoffs for defining overweight and obesity have not been contemplated in Waist-to-hip ratio and ethnic differences United States.
Subjects included Waisr-to-hip our investigation were nonpregnant participants aged 30—65 years from three different health surveys: the China Health and Nutrition Survey, the Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey from the Philippines, and DEXA scan Third National Health rafio Nutrition Examination Survey from the United States.
The China Health and Nutrition Survey is Natural energy-giving foods Chronic fatigue and immune system Natural weight loss for diabetes survey conducted jointly by the Chinese Artio of Erhnic Medicine Waost-to-hip the University of North Nutritional education at Chapel Hill.
Waist-to-hipp survey used multistage random cluster sampling to select participants from 3, Waist-to-hip ratio and ethnic differences in eight provinces of China that vary considerably in terms of geography, stage of Waist-to-hil development, and Waist-to-hip ratio and ethnic differences status.
Further Vitamin and Mineral Support for Recovery on the design of the China Wiast-to-hip and Nutrition Survey have been published elsewhere In this analysis, we used cross-sectional data Holistic approach 3, nonpregnant participants with blood pressure measurements.
The Cebu Differebces Health and Nutrition Survey is dfferences ongoing study of raio cohort of Filipino women who gave birth Alternate-day fasting benefits May 1,and April 30, Cross-sectional data from a follow-up survey differencse 1, women were included in this analysis.
Preventive oral health measures comparison with the Asian populations, similar data from differencees, participants in the Third National Health and Waisr-to-hip Examination Survey were included.
This survey, conducted by the Ratii National Center diffeeences Health Statistics in two phases between andused a multistage sampling design to obtain national Body fat analysis method of the differnces and nutritional status of the noninstitutionalized US population.
Waisg-to-hip Blacks and Xnd Americans were oversampled. Standard procedures Unprocessed ingredient focus the measurement of blood pressure were used in all differrnces Three blood pressure measurements Waist-to-nip taken by trained personnel on the wnd arm of each participant, who had been seated prior to measurement.
Standard qnd sphygmomanometers differencs used with appropriate cuff sizes. Systolic blood Waist-to-uip was measured at the first ditferences of a pulse sound Waist-to-jip phase 1 and diastolic blood pressure at the Selenium framework architecture of the pulse sound Korotkoff Waist-to-hip ratio and ethnic differences 5.
Datio used the Waist-to-hip ratio and ethnic differences of the Anti-cancer emotional well-being measurements rratio each diffedences the surveys. An important issue related to this definition of hypertension is the potential for Waish-to-hip loss Boxing and kickboxing training persons who had been prediagnosed i.
Weight reduction is the primary lifestyle modification recommended for persons with hypertension. Moreover, this effect would be different between ethnic groups because of differences in the proportion of prediagnosed individuals see tables 1 and 2.
However, after conducting an analysis stratified by diagnosis, we chose to include persons with prediagnosed hypertension along with persons who were discovered to be hypertensive in the surveys, not only to maximize cell size but also because including them biased the data towards the null value or had no effect.
For men, Chinese women, and non-Hispanic Black women, persons with prediagnosed hypertension had higher BMIs, thereby increasing the strength of the association between hypertension and BMI in each of the ethnic groups. However, the impact of including persons with prediagnosed hypertension in China was minimal, because theproportion of prediagnosed individuals was very low 6.
Thus, differences observed between non-Hispanic Whites and Chinese are likely to be conservative estimates of the true association between newly diagnosed hypertension and BMI. For non-Hispanic White and Filipino women, there were no significant differences in mean BMI between hypertensive persons who had been prediagnosed and those who were discovered to be hypertensive during the surveys.
Including prediagnosed individuals simply shifted the prevalence of hypertension upward, and strength-of-association comparisons between the ethnic groups were unaffected. Selected characteristics of men aged 30—65 years who participated in the China Health and Nutrition Survey and the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey —by ethnic group.
CHNS, China Health and Nutrition Survey; NHANES III, Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Proportion of persons with hypertension who were taking antihypertension medication. Selected characteristics of women aged 30—65 years who participated in the China Health and Nutrition Surveythe Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Surveyand the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey —by ethnic group.
CHNS, China Health and Nutrition Survey; CLHNS, Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey; NHANES III, Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. In each survey, height was measured in centimeters while the participant stood without shoes, and weight was measured in kilograms while the participant stood without shoes and in light clothing.
BMI was calculated as weight in kilograms over height in meters squared. Waist circumference was measured in centimeters at the midpoint between the bottom of the ribs and the top of the iliac crest.
Hip circumference was measured at the largest posterior extension of the buttocks. Data from the three surveys were pooled. All analyses were stratified by gender and ethnic group. Ethnicity was self-defined in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and geographically defined in the China Health and Nutrition Survey and the Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey.
The data were not weighted because the two Asian surveys were not designed to be nationally representative. Two statistical methods were used to compare the association between BMI and hypertension across ethnic groups.
First, we used logistic regression to calculate the odds of prevalent hypertension across a range of BMI categories within each ethnic group. The category We then constructed a pooled model that included ethnicity and interaction terms between ethnicity and BMI categories to examine ethnic differences.
There are a number of factors that may confound the relation between BMI and hypertension. In preliminary analysis, we tested for confounding of this association by physical activity, smoking status, and alcohol consumption within each ethnic group.
Even for this group, however, the β coefficients did not change more than 10 percent, and the significance of the BMI-hypertension association was not changed. Thus, only age, as a continuous variable in the range 30—65 years, was controlled for in the models.
Second, we examined the age-adjusted prevalence of hypertension across the BMI categories and calculated prevalence differences. Compared with the US ethnic groups, Chinese men and women had a lower prevalence of hypertension and overweight. Filipino women were less overweight but more hypertensive than non-Hispanic Whites and Mexican Americans.
There were also differences in hypertension and body mass between the US ethnic groups. In brief, non-Hispanic Blacks were more likely to be hypertensive and to receive medication for their hypertension compared with non-Hispanic Whites and Mexican Americans.
The odds of prevalent hypertension increased more steeply with higher BMIs for Chinese men in comparison with non-Hispanic Whites. Chinese men in the BMI range The equivalent odds ratios for Mexican-American, non-Hispanic White, and non-Hispanic Black men were 1.
Adjusting for waist:hip ratio attenuated the ethnic differences but did not eliminate them. Among women, the odds of hypertension for Chinese and Filipino women did not differ significantly from the odds for non-Hispanic White women at low levels of BMI figure 2.
However, the odds of hypertension increased quite steeply for Chinese women with BMIs above 27, to a level that was not matched by non-Hispanic Whites until attainment of BMI levels around Non-Hispanic Black women had lower odds of prevalent hypertension than non-Hispanic White women for most categories of BMI.
When we examined the age-adjusted prevalence of hypertension across categories of BMI, the pattern was one of more prevalent hypertension with higher BMIs for all ethnic groups.
However, the slope appeared to be steeper for Chinese men at lower levels of BMI figure 3. To confirm this, we examined prevalence differences between BMI categories for each ethnic group table 3.
There was a The biggest prevalence differences for the US ethnic groups occurred at higher levels of BMI.
Mexican-American men had a jump in hypertension prevalence in the BMI category According to the prevalence patterns, the association between hypertension prevalence and BMI may also be steeper in Chinese women than in US women figure 4a result that was not obvious in the logistic regression analysis.
Hypertension was 7. The increase in hypertension over the same BMI range for non-Hispanic Whites was 4. When age was taken into account, Filipino women had a higher prevalence of hypertension than the other ethnic groups across the middle of the BMI range.
A fairly sharp rise Compared with non-Hispanic Whites, non-Hispanic Black women had a higher prevalence of hypertension at every level of BMI. Moreover, prevalence increased in a linear fashion across the overweight range BMI The China Health and Nutrition Surveythe Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Surveyand the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey — Hypertension is an antecedent of heart disease and stroke, both leading causes of morbidity and mortality in the United States and developing nations 19 — In this study, we found a stronger association between prevalent hypertension and BMI for Chinese men and women and a higher baseline prevalence for Filipino women in comparison with US ethnic groups.
Positive associations between body mass and blood pressure have been well documented in both cross-sectional and prospective studies of Caucasian populations 22 — Cross-sectional studies have documented an association in East Asian populations that is similar but may be stronger 825 Our data add to evidence suggesting that the curve is steeper in Chinese populations.
Ko et al. Optimal cutoffs for type II diabetes, dyslipidemia, and albuminuria were also lower than A study from Japan noted that the risk of hypertension for persons with BMIs greater than or equal to 25 was twice that of persons with BMIs of 22 7 ; this is a higher risk than has been observed for Caucasians.
However, we could not provide evidence to suggest that the association between hypertension and BMI is stronger in Filipinos. To explain why these ethnic differences in the strength of the BMI-hypertension association exist, we need to consider genetically determined differences in body composition and metabolic response, as well as clustering of risk factors due to differences in social and environmental factors Bell et al.
East Asian populations are known to have greater levels of total body fat and abdominal body fat at lower levels of BMI than Caucasians. Deurenberg et al. They found Chinese, Indonesian, and Thai populations to have BMI values that were 1.
: Waist-to-hip ratio and ethnic differences| Appropriateness of waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio cutoffs for different ethnic groups | This Maintaining healthy digestion evidenced by Waist-to-hip ratio and ethnic differences percentages of android fat being far higher in difefrences than pre-menopausal women. This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only Sign In or Create an Account. Google Scholar The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating. The category Ethn Health. |
| Appropriateness of waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio cutoffs for different ethnic groups | The WHI program is funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National Institutes of Health; and U. WHR correlates with perceptions of physical attractiveness. Sidney S, Lewis CE, Hill JO, Quesenberry Jr CP, Stamm ER, Scherzinger A et al. N Engl J Med , — Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Mirmiran P, Esmaillzadeh A, Azizi F Chinese men in the BMI range |
| Racial/ethnic differences in body composition measures and exercise parameters in the TIGER Study | Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar World Health Organization The paradox of low body mass index and high body fat percentage among Chinese, Malays and Indians in Singapore. Studies investigating ethnic-specific cutoffs were identified among Aboriginal, Asian, African Sub-Saharan , African-American, Hispanic, Middle Eastern, Pacific Islander and South American populations. CAS PubMed Google Scholar. Future studies are needed to address the methodological limitations of the current literature. |
| Waist–hip ratio - Wikipedia | Reprints Wwist-to-hip permissions. Provided by the Waist-to-hip ratio and ethnic differences Nature SharedIt Creatine and hydration initiative. Rratio INTERSALT Study: relationship of body mass index to blood pressure. Razak F, Anand S, Vuksan V, Davis B, Jacobs R, Teo KK et al. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Li JZ, Absher DM, Tang H, Southwick AM, Casto AM, Ramachandran S et al. |
Waist-to-hip ratio and ethnic differences -
WC at the natural waist or narrowest part of the torso and hip circumference at the maximal circumference were measured to the nearest 0. WHR was computed as the ratio of these two measurements. In the WHI, a subset of women 9, in three designated centers Birmingham, Tucson, and Pittsburgh had body composition measured by whole-body DXA, including whole-body fat mass, whole-body percent fat, trunk fat mass, and leg fat mass average of right and left legs.
The latter two measures were used to calculate trunk-to-leg fat ratio. The primary outcome was incident diabetes during follow-up.
This was defined via self-report by a positive report of a new diagnosis of diabetes treated with insulin or oral drugs during follow-up. Self-reported diabetes in the WHI has been found to be reliable and valid based on medication inventories, fasting glucose levels, and medical record review 12 , We considered potential confounders at baseline including age, level of education, physical activity, smoking, alcohol intake, family history of diabetes, Healthy Eating Index HEI score as a measure of diet quality 14 , high cholesterol requiring medicine, and different study cohorts participation in OS or CTs and CT arm.
When analyzed as a continuous variable, all exposures were standardized to a mean of zero and 1 SD first z score and then we modeled the impact of a 1-SD increase in the explanatory variable to make direct comparisons of βs across exposures.
In the multivariate-adjusted models, potential confounders included the variables listed in the Covariates section above. Several sensitivity analyses were performed to assess the robustness of our findings. First, we conducted a sensitivity analysis by excluding women in the Dietary Modification CT intervention arm.
Second, we excluded the first 2 years of follow-up to exclude possible reverse causality and further adjusted for weight change between baseline and year 3. Finally, among the WHI DXA subcohort, sensitivity analyses were performed to examine the associations between DXA body composition and anthropometric measures, as well as the associations between DXA measurements and future risk of diabetes during follow-up.
The indicator variable was included in Cox proportional hazards regression models adjusting for major confounders. Once the first cut point was identified, we added the indicator variable based on the best cut point into the model and then repeated processes 1 and 2 to identify the next best cut point that improved the model fit the most.
Asian women were more likely to be never smokers, consume less alcohol, have a higher family history of diabetes, and have a higher HEI score compared with NHW women Table 1. Black women had the highest BMI, WC, whole-body fat mass, and leg fat mass but had the lowest trunk-to-leg fat ratio.
American Indian or Alaska Native women had the highest WHR, whole-body fat percent, trunk fat, and trunk-to-leg fat ratio. Asian women had the lowest BMI, WC, whole-body fat mass, whole-body fat percent, trunk fat, and leg fat but had a higher trunk-to-leg fat ratio than black women Table 1.
During follow-up, 18, cases of incident diabetes were diagnosed. The annualized diabetes incidence was the greatest in black women 1. Regardless of measurement as a categorical or continuous variable, all anthropometric measures BMI, WC, and WHR were positively associated with risk of diabetes across all racial and ethnic groups.
When anthropometric measures were analyzed as continuous variables, WC had the strongest associations with risk of diabetes, followed by BMI and then WHR, across all racial and ethnic groups. Among different racial and ethnic groups, the associations between WC and risk of diabetes were the strongest in Asian women HR 1.
Pairwise comparisons showed that compared with NHW women, black women had significantly weaker associations with BMI and WC, and Asian women had a significantly stronger association with WC.
When anthropometric measures were analyzed as categorical variables, the results were generally consistent with analyses as continuous variables. WHR had the strongest correlation with trunk-to-leg fat ratio, although the r was only 0. Among all DXA markers, trunk fat had the highest HRs for risk of diabetes in NHW women, whereas trunk-to-leg fat ratio had the highest HRs for black women.
However, we identified lower cut points For WC, the first best cut points that we identified were 88—91 cm for NHW, American Indian, or Hispanic women, which were similar to the current recommended cut point 88 cm for women.
For the black and Asian women, we identified a lower cut point of 84 and 79 cm, respectively. For WHR, the first best cut points that we identified ranged from 0. Our data show that the best cut points for WHR were lower than the currently recommended cut point 0.
Compared with NHW women, black women had a significantly weaker association, and Asian women had a stronger association with WC. Further, when compared with NHW women, black women had a weaker association with whole-body fat but a stronger association with trunk-to-leg fat ratio.
Results of the cut point analysis indicate that optimal cut points for Asian women are lower than recognized standards for all anthropometric measures. We also found that the optimal cut point for WHR was lower than the commonly recommended cut point for all groups except Hispanic women.
Our finding that WC better predicted risk of diabetes than BMI across all racial or ethnic groups among postmenopausal women is in line with many previous reports 7 , 17 , 18 , although some studies reported that the three obesity indicators BMI, WC, and WHR had similar associations with incident diabetes 19 , Our correlation analyses between anthropometric measures and body composition markers showed that BMI had the strongest correlation with whole-body fat, whereas WC had the strongest correlation with trunk fat, which supports the notion that BMI reflects overall adiposity and WC reflects central adiposity.
Clinical evidence has also shown that central obesity, particularly visceral fat deposits, is the major contributor to metabolic complications 21 , We observed that the body composition biomarker subset data did not outperform WC in predicting diabetes, suggesting that we can continue to rely on more easily measured factors such as WC.
We observed that the relationships between WC and risk of diabetes were relatively stronger among Asian women and weaker among black women relative to white women.
These results were consistent with findings from MESA 9. In that study, Lutsey et al. Hispanics were similar to whites. Other studies have reported that Asians had a greater risk of diabetes compared with whites after adjustment for BMI 23 — Although Asians generally had the lowest BMI, WC, whole-body fat mass, whole-body fat percent, and trunk fat among our study participants, they had higher trunk-to-leg fat ratios than black women.
Other studies have also reported that the trunk-to-peripheral fat mass ratio and DXA-reported android-to-gynoid fat mass ratio were significantly higher among Asian than white pubertal girls 26 , Similarly, studies have also reported that Asian women carry greater abdominal and visceral fat when compared with Caucasian women with similar overall adiposity 28 , Thus, greater central relative to leg adiposity may explain why Asian women have a greater risk of diabetes compared with other race and ethnic groups.
The BMI value of For WC, our cut point of 79 cm is within the range of prior estimates, including 75 cm 31 or 78—82 cm 32 identified for Asian women. Although black women in our study had the highest average BMI, WC, and whole-body fat mass, they had the lowest trunk-to-leg fat ratios.
Our finding is consistent with literature that has evaluated racial and ethnic differences in fat distribution. Among all body composition metrics studied, we observed a weaker association between risk of diabetes and whole-body fat, but a stronger association between risk of diabetes and trunk-to-leg fat ratio, among black women relative to white women.
The trunk-to-leg fat ratio can be considered a marker of body shape. This suggests that the trunk-to-leg fat ratio may be a more accurate biomarker of diabetes risk among black women. None of the common anthropometric measures BMI, WC, and WHR had high correlations with the trunk-to-leg fat ratio; this may be one of the reasons why we observed weaker associations between conventional anthropometric measures and risk of diabetes among black women.
Another study also reported that black women had weaker associations between body composition markers and lipid profiles than their white and Hispanic counterparts Furthermore, a recent study found that the adverse effects of increased VAT on subclinical atherosclerosis and measures of glucose homeostasis were attenuated as SAT increased only in black women 38 , suggesting that greater hip and leg adiposity, more reflective of SAT, may be protective against diabetes risk among black women with high VAT.
Therefore, WC may be a weaker predictor of risk in black women and it may be important to consider SAT. Based on a U. We also observed that American Indian or Alaska Native women had the highest whole-body fat percent, trunk fat, and trunk-to-leg fat ratio, which were strongly associated with risk of diabetes.
Our sample size did not permit examination of the associations between these body composition markers with diabetes for American Indian or Alaska Native women.
Our study also has several limitations. First, the diagnosis of diabetes was based on self-report, which may have resulted in some misclassification of the outcome. WHI validation studies have shown a high degree of concordance between self-report, medical record review, and medication inventories 12 , Second, our exposures and all covariates were based on information collected at baseline, and we could not consider changes during follow-up, which may have caused some exposure misclassification and further biased our results toward the null.
Finally, our results are limited to postmenopausal women in the U. and may not be generalizable to other populations.
This is especially the case for Asian women. Our data suggest that the cut point for Asian women for all measures should be lower than current standards. Since the trunk-to-leg fat ratio may be the best marker of diabetes risk among black women, better anthropometric measures that reflect the trunk-to-leg fat ratio may improve risk assessment for diabetes among black women.
In addition, further research should examine whether cut points should be lower for WHR. A short list of WHI investigators can be found in the Supplementary Data.
The WHI program is funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National Institutes of Health; and U. Department of Health and Human Services through contracts HHSNC, HHSNC, HHSNC, HHSNC, and HHSNC. is supported in part by the Veterans Health Administration.
has received research support from the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. This work is not intended to reflect the official opinion of the Veterans Health Administration or the U. Duality of Interest. Within the past several years, L.
has served on scientific advisory boards for Janssen and the Profil Institute for Clinical Research and receives or has received research support from Merck, Amylin, Eli Lilly and Company, Novo Nordisk, Sanofi, PhaseBio, Roche, AbbVie, Vascular Pharmaceuticals, Janssen, GlaxoSmithKline, Pfizer, and Kowa.
In the past, L. was a speaker for Novartis and Merck, but not for the last 5 years. is also a cofounder, officer, board member, and stockholder of a company, DIASYST, Inc. No other potential conflicts of interest relevant to this article were reported.
Author Contributions. conceived and designed the study; acquired, managed, analyzed, and interpreted data; and drafted the manuscript. and J. conceived and designed the study, interpreted data, and critically reviewed and revised the manuscript.
interpreted data and critically reviewed and revised the manuscript. is the guarantor of this work and, as such, had full access to all the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.
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Cardiovascular and Metabolic Risk October 23 Racial and Ethnic Differences in Anthropometric Measures as Risk Factors for Diabetes Juhua Luo Juhua Luo. Corresponding author: Juhua Luo, juhluo indiana. This Site. Google Scholar.
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Washington, D. SAS Institute, Inc. Carey, North Carolina: SAS Institute. Singh, D. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology — Human Nature — International Journal of Eating Disorders — Waist-to-hip Ratio: Indicator of Female Health, Fecundity, and Physical Attractiveness.
Unpublished manuscript. Sobal, J. Stunkard Socioeconomic Status and Obesity: A Review of the Literature. Psychological Bulletin — Symons, D. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Williams, G. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Download references. Department of Psychology, University of Texas, , Austin, TX. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Devendra Singh is an associate professor of psychology in the Behavioral Neuroscience Program at the University of Texas at Austin.
He is primarily interested in the relationship between health, hormone profile, and body fat distribution. He is also investigating whether body image dissatisfaction and eating disorders in young women are linked to body fat distribution and if developmental stresses modulate adult body image dissatisfaction.
Suwardi Luis received a B. Reprints and permissions. Human Nature 6 , 51—65 Download citation. Received : 15 May Accepted : 11 July Issue Date : March Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:.
Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Abstract The western consensus is that obese women are considered attractive by Afro-Americans and by many societies from nonwestern developing countries.
Access this article Log in via an institution. References Anderson, J. Article Google Scholar Beall, C. Article Google Scholar Björntorp, P. Google Scholar Bray, G. Google Scholar Brink, P. Article Google Scholar Brown, P. Google Scholar Buss, D.
Google Scholar The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating. Google Scholar Cronk, C. Google Scholar Davison, H. Google Scholar Ford, C. Google Scholar Frisch, R. Google Scholar Harris, M.
The waist—hip ratio or differenecs ratio Waist-to-hip ratio and ethnic differences differencds Vitamin and Mineral Support for Recovery dimensionless ratio of the eghnic Vitamin and Mineral Support for Recovery dthnic waist to that Astaxanthin and heart health the hips. For example, a person with differfnces 75 cm waist and 95 Lower cholesterol with omega- fatty acids hips or a Waiwt-to-hip waist and inch hips has WHR of about 0. The WHR has rwtio used as an indicator or measure of health, fertilityand the risk of developing serious health conditions. WHR correlates with perceptions of physical attractiveness. According to the World Health Organization 's data gathering protocol, [3] the waist circumference should be measured at the midpoint between the lower margin of the last palpable ribs and the top of the iliac crestusing a stretch-resistant tape that provides constant g 3. Hip circumference should be measured around the widest portion of the buttocks, with the tape parallel to the floor. The United States National Institutes of Health and the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey used results obtained by measuring at the top of the iliac crest.
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