Potential antifungal activities -
A control assay was also performed. For antifungal assays, 2. digitatum solution was inoculated on the center of each agar plate.
Negative controls were performed in triplicate. For determination of minimum inhibitory concentration MIC of compounds 1 and 4 , microbroth dilution assay was performed as recommended by Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute 24 with few modifications.
digitatum solution. Assays were made in duplicate and controls in triplicate. Negative controls were performed with methanol in YES. After the incubation period, the microscopes slides were removed from the Petri dish. The in vitro co-culture samples were stained with Congo Red 0.
Samples were analyzed with Leica TCS SP5 microscope. To screen for new antifungal compounds with potential to protect citrus fruits and control postharvest diseases, we applied a co-culture strategy involving P.
digitatum and another citrus pathogen, P. Co-culture is a strategy inspired by nature in which the competition between the microorganisms can induce the production of new metabolites 8. In previous work, the co-cultivation between Trichophyton rubrum and Bionectria ochroleuca induced the production of a new sulfated analogue of PS, suggesting that this compound is further sulfated during the fungal interaction Also, another example of a compound derived from fungi interaction is the tetrapeptide cyclo- L -leucyl- trans hydroxy- L -prolyl- D -leucyl- trans hydroxy- L -proline isolated from the co-culture broth of Phomopsis sp.
K38 and Alternaria sp. E33; the cyclic tetrapeptide exhibited moderate to high inhibitory activity against phytopathogenic fungi when compared to the commercial fungicide triadimefon Thus, co-cultivation experiments are a viable approach to find compounds that can inhibit the main citrus phytopathogens, specially, the green mold caused by P.
In co-cultivation performed in both orange in vivo and synthetic media in vitro we visually observed a long-distance growth inhibition between P.
citrinum and P. In a fungi interaction, silent genes can be activated and harmful metabolites can be diffused from one partner to the other 16 , These induced metabolites are usually localized at the zone of confrontation in solid media of co-cultures However, regular approaches used to detect and elucidate metabolites such as mass spectrometry coupled to liquid LC-MS or gas GC-MS chromatography do not provide information about the spatial distribution of the molecules The information about molecular spatial distribution can be obtained by mass spectrometry imaging MSI , a powerful tool that generates images for each ion detected in the mass spectrum The use of MSI to understand microbial systems and their secondary metabolites is not new and studies where this technique was successfully applied can be found in the literature By example, MSI was applied to investigate the interaction between Bacillus subtilis and Streptomyces coelicolor A3.
DESI imaging of the bacterial co-culture revealed 57 signals spatially localized to bacterial colonies, leading to the identification of some secondary metabolites such as surfactin and plipastatin Furthermore, MSI analysis also showed that S.
coelicolor has the production of certain secondary metabolites inhibited in the presence of B. subtilis , revealing an interaction between bacteria Therefore, to detect the secondary metabolites involved in the interaction between the citrus pathogens, we applied DESI-MSI directly on the surface of the co-culture agar, to visualize the diffusion of compounds to the zone of confrontation.
S1 — S We observed that all the ions mentioned were detected and concentrated in the zone of confrontation between the fungi Fig. These compounds may be related to the fungus-fungus interaction and could be potentially new antimicrobial agents.
digitatum , revealing a chemical warfare between these two citrus pathogens. The ions detected in vitro through MSI analyses were also detected in the extracts of the co-cultures in vivo Figs. S1 1— S20 using oranges as substrate Fig.
Overview of the experimental setup and strategies applied to analyze the secondary metabolites involved in citrus pathogens interaction. citrinum were co-cultured in orange in vivo and in PDA media in vitro to induce the production of secondary metabolites. MSI was applied, in vitro , to detect the secondary metabolites produced in the zone of confrontation.
HRMS analysis was performed to confirm the fungus-fungus interaction in vivo. The metabolites of interest were isolated from a scale up experiment. Subsequently, antifungal assays and confocal laser scanning microscopy analysis were performed to investigate antimicrobial activity and fungal cell morphology, respectively.
To characterize the metabolites involved in the interaction, a co-culture extract was obtained from a scale up cultivation experiment and the compounds of interest, detected initially through MSI analyses, were isolated by preparative HPLC and characterized through tandem mass spectrometry and NMR analyses.
Through the exact masses obtained by DESI-MSI analyses Table 1 it was possible to confirm the presence of indole alkaloids produced by P. These compounds are part of the tryptoquialanines biosynthetic pathway 32 and were previously detected during DESI-MSI analysis of oranges infected with the green mold disease Chemical structures of indole alkaloids produced by P.
digitatum : tryptoquialanine A 1 , tryptoquialanine C 2 , tryptoquialanone 3 , dimethylepi-fumiquinazoline A 4 and deoxytryptoquialanone 5. These compounds were detected through DESI-MSI in the fungal confrontation zone. Compound 1 was reported as the major secondary metabolite produced by P.
digitatum Yet, the deletion of tqaA gene, responsible to regulate 1 biosynthesis, showed that 1 is not involved in the pathogenicity of P.
digitatum against citrus since the infection ability of the mutants was not altered The exact biological role of the tryptoquialanines is still unknown 34 and this study provides a new biological activity of the tryptoquialanines with the involvement of these alkaloids in the fungal-fungal interaction.
S21 , the same fragmentation pattern obtained for citrinadin A 6 in a study involving co-culture between P. citrinum and Pseudoalteromonas sp. OT59 The tandem mass spectrum obtained for this compound shared five fragments in common with the tandem mass spectrum of 6 deposited in the database Fig.
Citrinadins were reported being higher produced in co-culture situations and concentrated in co-culture interfaces, suggesting a defensive response of P. citrinum against other microorganisms 19 , Molecular networking analysis of the isolated compounds revealed that another citrinadin is involved in the co-culture interaction.
S23 , suggesting that this compound is a citrinadin-like metabolite. S25 — S26 and Table S1 exhibited similar signals of a synthesized deoxycitrinadin A that was reported by Bian et al. The epoxide characteristic signal at δ H 4. It is the first time that deoxycitrinadin A 7 is reported in the literature as a secondary metabolite produced by a microorganism.
Same fragmentation pattern was reported for the sequence of tetrapeptides Phe-Val-Val-Tyr 8 of Penicillium canescens Yet, the tetrapeptides 8 and Phe-Val-Val-Phe 9 were recently reported as secondary metabolites produced by Penicillium roqueforti The production of these tetrapeptides in fungal chemical warfare is not surprising because small peptides are known for their antimicrobial activity This is the first report of 8 and 9 as secondary metabolites of P.
Compound 10 was isolated and 1 H and 13 C NMR analyses Figs. S33 — S34 and Table S4 confirmed its structure; it is the first report that chrysogenamide A is involved in a fungal-fungal interaction.
Compound 10 was first reported as a secondary metabolite of Penicillium chrysogenum No. Also, 10 was reported as a secondary metabolite of a P. citrinum strain The structures of the metabolites produced by P. citrinum are represented in Fig.
Chemical structures of secondary metabolites produced by P. citrinum during chemical warfare against P. digitatum : citrinadin A 6 , deoxycitrinadin A 7 and chrysogenamide A We investigated the antifungal activity of the metabolites produced in the co-culture and P. digitatum was inoculated in agar media containing co-culture extract.
digitatum radial growth Fig. S35 , indicating that the metabolites involved in the fungal warfare have potential as antifungal agents. digitatum radial growth, respectively, when compared to control Fig.
Citrinadins were found to be involved in the response of P. citrinum against other microorganisms in co-cultures, but the biological role of them in biological environments are still unknown to this date Compound 6 was tested for Anti-buruli ulcer activity on Mycobacterium ulcerans MN, but no interesting MIC was observed 43 ; also, cytotoxicity activity of 6 against leukemia and carcinoma cells was reported Our results are the first report of an antimicrobial activity of citrinadins in literature and can provide first insights about the biological role of these compounds in fungal-fungal interactions.
In addition, chrysogenamide A was never reported as an antimicrobial agent until now. Compound 10 exhibited a protective effect on neurocytes against oxidative stress-induced cell death 41 , however no other biological activity for 10 was reported in the literature.
Antifungal assays applying D -Phe- L -Val- D -Val- L -Tyr revealed that this tetrapeptide has inhibitory activity against B. subitllis and the soybean phytopathogen Fusarium virguliforme In contrast, no inhibition of E. coli , B. subtilis and S. cerevisiae in presence of D -Phe- L -Val- D -Val- L -Tyr or D -Phe- L -Val- D -Val- L -Phe was observed The antifungal activity of the tryptoquialanines was also evaluated, since these compounds seemed to be a chemical response of P.
digitatum against P. citrinum in the chemical warfare. Tryptoquialanines 1 and 4 were tested and revealed an antifungal activity against P. citrinum spore production Fig. To the best of our knowledge, it is the first report of an antimicrobial activity of the tryptoquialanines.
Recently, 1 was demonstrated as an insecticidal compound against Ae. aegypti larvae 23 ; the antifungal activity can provide more understanding about the role of the tryptoquialanines in the citrus-pathogen environment once these compounds are not required for P.
digitatum virulence To investigate the action of the secondary metabolites during the fungal interaction, co-culture samples were stained with Congo Red and observed through confocal laser scanning microscopy.
Congo Red is commonly used to stain polysaccharides containing β 1,4 linkages as, by example, the fungal cell wall component chitin 45 , digitatum hyphae were observed in the confrontation zone sample and compared with hyphae distant to the interface region control Fig.
Control hyphae were homogeneous stained with Congo Red while hyphae in the interface region exhibited an altered staining pattern Fig.
Similar staining patterns were obtained for knockout mutant fungi which the deleted genes had a role in cell wall organization; as result, mutants exhibited defective cell walls and irregular staining 25 , 46 , Yet, abnormal staining with Calcofluor White was observed for P.
Confocal laser scanning microscopy of Congo Red-stained P. digitatum hyphae A distant from P. citrinum and B in the zone of confrontation. Patches of Congo Red indicates a defective fungal cell wall. This data shows that P. digitatum hyphae, in contact with the metabolites diffused during the co-culture, have a defective cell wall since Congo Red bounds to fungal cell wall structures.
The fungal cell wall is an attractive target of antimicrobials because they are not present in mammalian cells 49 , In conclusion, the microscopy analysis and the antifungal assays reinforce that the metabolites involved in the fungal interaction have potential as antifungal agents and may be the mechanism in nature that these phytopathogens developed to compete against other microorganisms for the host Fig.
Chemical warfare between P. digitatum in citrus fruit. Tryptoquialanines, citrinadins, chrysogenamide A, tetrapeptides and other metabolites are involved in the long-distance inhibition observed. The search for new natural antimicrobials is a promising field in natural products research concerning the economic impact of postharvest diseases to worldwide agriculture.
Furthermore, the appearance of fungi strains resistant to fungicides makes the discovery of new antifungal agents to replace synthetic compounds extremely important. Using co-cultivation between phytopathogens that compete for the same host, P.
citrinum , we observed a fungal interaction. Through MSI technique, we detected secondary metabolites diffused to the interface zone between the microorganisms. Tryptoquialanines, citrinadins, chyrsogenamide A and tetrapeptides exhibited great antifungal activity, confirming that co-cultures and MSI technique are a good combination in the search of new natural antimicrobials.
Until this date, there has been no information about the interaction between citrus pathogenic fungi. Our data revealed compounds that play a role in the citrus microbial ecology. In addition, we demonstrated that the metabolites studied have great potential as antifungal agents since fungal cell walls are one of the main targets of antifungal compounds.
The use of the identified compounds as natural antifungals instead of synthetic fungicides should be further investigated. This paper opens new research possibilities and contributes to the environmental and human health, helping in the search of safer strategies for agriculture through the use of compounds obtained from natural sources.
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Written By Koushlesh Kumar Mishra, Chanchal Deep Kaur, Anil Kumar Sahu, Rajnikant Panik, Pankaj Kashyap, Saraswati Prasad Mishra and Shweta Dutta. Continue reading from the same book View All. Chapter 7 The Utilization of Traditional Herbal Medicine for By Ji Yeon Ryu, Jung Youn Park, Angela Dongmin Sung a Chapter 8 Pharmacological Activities and Phytochemicals of E By Klaokwan Srisook and Ekaruth Srisook downloads.
Chapter 9 Plants and Cancer Treatment By Bassam Hassan downloads. Topical fungal infections, Candidiasis, aspergillus and candida infections, vaginal yeast infections.
Cryptococcosis, severe invasive aspergillosis, cryptococcal meningitis treated along with other antifungals. Eugenia uniflora. krusei [ 17 ]. Psidium guajava. Curcuma longa. Piptadenia colubrina. glabrata [ 17 ]. Schinus terebinthifolius. dubliniensis [ 17 ]. Persea americana.
Parapiptadenia rigida. albicans [ 17 ]. Ajania fruticulosa. Candida albicans, C. fumigatus [ 17 ]. Alibertia macrophylla. Cladosporium sphaerospermum; C. niger; Colletotrichum gloeosporioides [ 17 ]. Aniba panurensis. Aquilegia vulgaris. niger [ 17 ].
Mimosa tenuiflora. Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Microsporum canis [ 18 ]. Rubia tinctorum. verrucosum, Mucor mucedo [ 19 ]. Tithonia diversifolia. Microbotryum violaceum, Chlorella fusca [ 20 ]. Vernonanthura tweedieana. mentagrophytes [ 21 ].
Zingiber officinale. oryzae [ 22 ]. Datura metel. tropicalis [ 23 ]. Lupinus albus. mentagrophytes [ 24 ]. Ecballium elaterium. Boitylis cinerea [ 25 ]. Cassia tora. Botrytis cinerea, Erysiphe graminis, Phytophthora infestans, Puccinia recondita, Pyricularia grisea [ 26 ].
Chamaecyparis pisifera. oryzae [ 27 ]. Prunus yedoensis. Aegle marmelos. Alpinia galangal. Ananas comosus. Blumea balsamifera. Camptotheca acuminate. Capsicum frutescens. Euonymus europaeus. Haloxylon salicornium. Juniperus communis. Khaya ivorensis. Lycium chinense. Musa acuminate. Ocimum gratissimum.
Pinus pinaster. Polygonum punctatum. Smilax medica. Solanum tuberosum. Thymus vulgaris. Trachyspermum ammi. Trigonella graecum. Zingiber officinalis.
Essential oil Bidens tripartite. Candida albicans. Trichophyton sp. Tinea corporis, Tinea circinata, Tinea pedis. Trichophyton rubrum.
Fusarium species amtifungal Potential antifungal activities primary fungal pathogen affecting Healthy eating patterns foodstuffs both Potential antifungal activities crop yield and economic loss. Activitjes to these antiifungal, control of phytopathogenic fungi Potetial Potential antifungal activities one of the critical problems around the World. Nanotechnology is a new technology with potential in many fields, including agriculture. This study focused on determining potential effects of silver nanoparticles AgNPs with different nanosizes 3, 5, 8 and 10 nm and at different concentrations radicis-lycopersici FORL strains. The maximum antifungal activity was achieved by decreasing nanosize and increasing concentration of AgNPs.Video
Antifungal Volatile Activity of Biocontrol Products Measurement - Protocol Preview Open access peer-reviewed chapter. Submitted: Poential May Reviewed: 27 November Published: Potential antifungal activities March activitie customercare Antifungap. In Potential antifungal activities past few decades, acticities worldwide increase in Energy-boosting diet plans incidence of Potential antifungal activities infections has been observed as well as rise in the resistance of some species of fungi to different fungicidal used in medicinal practice. Besides, fungi are the one of the most neglected pathogens as demonstrated by the fact that the amphotericin B and other sold treatments are still used as gold standard as antifungal therapy. The majority of used antifungal treatments have various drawbacks in terms of toxicity, efficacy as well as cost and their frequent use has also led to the emergence of resistant strains. Hence, there is a great demand for developing an antifungal belonging to a wide range of structural classes, selectively acting on new targets with least side effects.
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