Common in men under the age of 50, the condition is often characterized by pelvic pain, sexual dysfunction, and painful urination and ejaculation 23 , While anti-inflammatory medications like aspirin and ibuprofen are often used to help reduce inflammation and pain, there has been an increased interest in using flower pollen extracts as a natural alternative to these medications One study in 65 people with chronic prostatitis found that the daily intake of capsules containing 1 gram of pollen extract and several B vitamins for 3 months significantly improved chronic prostatitis symptoms scores Additionally, the pollen extract group was found to have significantly lower levels of interleukin 8 IL-8 , a marker of inflammation that has been found to be higher in people with chronic prostatitis 24 , Similarly, a review of 10 studies observed that flower pollen extracts significantly improved quality of life and symptom scores in individuals with diagnosed chronic prostatitis In particular, the most common pollen extract blend used in these clinical trials was Graminex, a mixture of standardized extracts of ryegrass pollen Secal cereal , corn pollen Zea mays , and timothy pollen Phleum pratense The review also found flower pollen extracts to be safe without any serious reported side effects An herbal extract from the bark of the African cherry tree Prunus africana , pygeum is another common ingredient found in prostate supplements.

Limited test-tube and human studies have shown that pygeum extract may reduce inflammation associated with prostatitis and protect against the growth of cancerous cells 26 , An older review of 18 studies looked at the benefits of pygeum supplements on improving symptoms associated with BPH, compared with a placebo The review found that pygeum supplements significantly improved urinary flow measures.

Additionally, men taking pygeum were more than twice as likely to report an improvement in overall symptoms While research on the effectiveness of pygeum supplements is limited, so far it appears to be safe with minimal reported side effects It has been shown to contain several plant compounds with potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial effects.

Limited animal and human studies have noted that it may also help reduce lower urinary tract symptoms associated with BPH 30 , 31 , 32 , One older, 6-month study in adult men with symptomatic BPH found that taking mg of nettle root extract three times per day significantly improved lower urinary tract symptoms, compared with a placebo Additionally, test-tube and animal studies have suggested that nettle root may have anticancer effects.

However, no research currently exists to support its ability to help prevent prostate cancer in humans 34 , Despite promising results, the majority of research on nettle root extract for prostate health is limited and dated. More large-scale studies are needed to assess its ability to reduce symptoms associated with BPH, as well as its role in prostate cancer.

Due to its high concentrations of anti-inflammatory compounds, pumpkin seed oil is another common ingredient in prostate supplements By reducing inflammation, pumpkin seed oil is thought to help improve urinary tract symptoms associated with BPH and chronic nonbacterial prostatitis 37 , 38 , In one study of 60 men with BPH, consuming mg of an oil-free hydroethanolic pumpkin seed extract — corresponding to mg of native pumpkin seed oil extract and equivalent to 10 grams of pumpkin seeds — significantly reduced symptoms over 12 weeks Still, research on the effectiveness and optimal dosage of pumpkin seed oil for prostate issues is generally limited.

Several observational studies have also suggested a link between low vitamin D levels and an increased risk of prostate cancer 42 , 43 , Still, the research on whether supplementing with vitamin D can protect against prostate cancer is inconclusive.

In fact, one review even found an increased risk of prostate cancer in individuals with high circulating levels of vitamin D 45 , 46 , While taking vitamin D supplements may benefit men who are deficient in vitamin D or have low levels of it, supplementing with high doses is not currently recommended for prostate health.

Zinc is an essential mineral that plays an important role in cell growth and DNA repair. It has also been found to be present in high amounts in prostate tissue Interestingly, research has found that zinc concentration in the prostate is significantly reduced in people with prostate cancer.

While some studies have shown high zinc intake to be associated with a reduced risk of advanced prostate cancer, others have found it to be linked to an increased risk of developing prostate cancer 49 , 50 , 51 , Overall, the research on zinc and the risk of prostate cancer is inconclusive.

Some older studies have suggested that the antioxidant properties of vitamin E may protect against prostate cancer.

However, more recent studies have linked vitamin E supplements to an increased risk of prostate cancer 53 , 54 , 55 , The Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial SELECT was a large study in which 35, men were randomized to one of 4 treatments — mcg of selenium per day, IU of vitamin E per day, IU of vitamin E plus mcg of selenium per day, or a placebo While research on the potential link between vitamin E and prostate cancer is ongoing, vitamin E supplements are not currently recommended to decrease prostate cancer risk.

Men should avoid supplementing with vitamin E unless advised to do so by their healthcare provider. Selenium is another essential mineral that has attracted some controversy regarding its safety and effectiveness for prostate health. In two large reviews, higher levels of selenium in the body were associated with a reduced risk of prostate cancer, particularly in current and former smokers 57 , However, this difference was no longer statistically significant at the year evaluation.

A meta-analysis published in reported that there may be an association between increased risk of prostate cancer and greater consumption of dairy products and calcium. A meta-analysis reviewed 45 observational studies and found no evidence of a link between dairy products and risk of prostate cancer.

In a recent review, the U. Preventive Services Task Force Evidence Syntheses, formerly Systematic Evidence Reviews, conducted meta-analyses using Mantel-Haenszel fixed effects models for overall cancer incidence , cardiovascular disease incidence, and all-cause mortality.

A meta-analysis of this literature concluded that high intakes of dairy products, milk, low-fat milk, cheese, total dietary calcium, and dairy calcium may increase prostate cancer risk. The authors suggested that this association needs additional study.

Use our advanced clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now enrolling patients. The search can be narrowed by location of the trial, type of treatment, name of the drug, and other criteria.

General information about clinical trials is also available. Sailors first brought tea to England in , although tea has been popular in Asia since ancient times. After water, tea is the most-consumed beverage in the world. sinensis plant, and the process methods of the leaves determine the type of tea produced.

Green tea is not fermented but is made by an enzyme deactivation step whereby intensive heat i. In contrast, the enzyme-catalyzed polymerization and oxidation of catechins and other components produce darker-colored black tea.

In this summary, tea refers to the leaves of the C. sinensis plant or the beverage brewed from those leaves. Some observational and interventional studies suggest that green tea may have a protective effect against cardiovascular disease ,[ 3 ] and there is evidence that green tea may protect against various forms of cancer.

GTCs include EGCG, EC, EGC, ECG, and oligomeric proanthocyanidins derived from these catechin monomers. Among these compounds, EGCG is the most abundant catechin in green tea and has been widely researched;[ 5 ] however, it is also classified as a promiscuous compound.

Together with the catechin monomers, they constitute the green tea polyphenols GTPs. GTP composition and the ratio of monomeric to oligomeric catechins can vary widely, depending on processing and source of the tea leaves. Considering that EGCG and other monomeric catechins interfere with in vitro assays and exhibit a wide range of biological effects,[ 6 , 7 ] this indicates that the chemical factors responsible for the actual in vivo health benefits of green tea are mostly unknown.

Several companies distribute green tea as a dietary supplement. The FDA has not approved the use of green tea as a treatment for cancer or any other medical condition. Prostate cancer cells treated with EGCG concentrations, 0—80 μM demonstrated suppressed cell proliferation and decreased levels of PSA protein and mRNA in the presence or absence of androgen.

In a study, human prostate cancer cells were treated initially with EGCG concentrations, 1. The results showed that exposing cells to EGCG for 30 minutes before radiation significantly reduced apoptosis , compared with radiation alone.

According to a study, EGCG treatment 20— μM resulted in changes in expression levels of 40 genes in prostate cancer cells, including a fourfold downregulation of inhibitor of DNA binding 2 ID2; a protein involved in cell proliferation and survival.

In addition, forced expression of ID2 in cells treated with 80 μM EGCG resulted in reduced apoptosis, suggesting that EGCG may cause cell death via an ID2-related mechanism. Advances in nanotechnology — nanochemoprevention —may result in more-effective administration of EGCG to men at risk of developing prostate cancer.

Prostate cancer cells were treated with EGCG-loaded μM EGCG nanoparticles or free EGCG. Although both treatments decreased cell proliferation and induced apoptosis, the nanoparticle treatment had a greater effect at a lower concentration than did free EGCG.

This finding suggests that using a nanoparticle delivery system for EGCG may increase its bioavailability and improve its chemopreventive actions. Prostate cancer cells treated with this intervention exhibited decreases in proliferation; however, the intervention did not affect nonmalignant control cells.

The results suggest that this delivery system may be effective for selective targeting of prostate cancer cells. Research also suggests that glutathione-S-transferase pi GSTP1 may be a tumor suppressor and that hypermethylation of certain regions of this gene i.

Increased methylation leads to silencing of the gene. A set of experiments investigated the effects of green tea polyphenols on GSTP1 expression. These results indicate that green tea polyphenols may have chemopreventive effects via actions on gene-silencing processes.

The results of a study suggested that green tea polyphenols may exert anticancer effects by inhibiting histone deacetylases HDACs. Class I HDACs are often overexpressed in various cancers, including prostate cancer.

Owing to the high concentrations of tea polyphenols used in some of the in vitro experiments, results should be interpreted with caution. Studies in humans have indicated that blood levels of EGCG are 0.

Animal models have been used in several studies investigating the effects of green tea on prostate cancer. In one study, TRAMP mice were given access to water or GTC—treated water 0.

After 24 weeks, water-fed TRAMP mice had developed prostate cancer, whereas mice treated with GTCs showed only prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia lesions, suggesting that GTCs may help delay the development of prostate tumors.

Treatment with EGCG resulted in reductions in tumor volume and decreases in serum PSA levels compared with vehicle treatment. In a study, TRAMP mice were started on a green tea polyphenol intervention 0.

EGCG treatment suppressed HGPIN in mice treated at age 12 weeks; however, EGCG did not prevent prostate cancer development in mice that began treatment at age 28 weeks. Furthermore, GTP consumption caused significant apoptosis, which possibly resulted in reduced dissemination of cancer cells, thereby causing inhibition of development, progression, and metastasis to distant organ sites.

Safety and efficacy assessments were performed at baseline and when mice were 12, 22, and 32 weeks old. Results indicated that the number and size of tumors in treated TRAMP mice were significantly decreased, compared with untreated animals.

The study was terminated prematurely because of excessive loss of animals due to morbidity and mortality in all treatment groups. These studies have revealed some unique dose-limiting lethal liver , gastrointestinal, and renal toxicities.

Gross necropsy revealed therapy-induced lesions in the gastrointestinal tracts, livers, kidneys, reproductive organs, and hematopoietic tissues of treated male and female dogs. In a study [ 23 ] of several doses of a standardized Polyphenon E targeting TRAMP mice, no liver or other toxicities were observed.

The relationship between green tea intake and prostate cancer has been examined in several epidemiological studies. Two meta-analyses examined the consumption of green tea and prostate cancer risk, with one meta-analysis including black tea. The results indicated a statistically significant inverse association between green tea consumption and prostate cancer risk in the three case-control studies, but no association was found in the four cohort studies.

For black tea, no association was found between black tea consumption and prostate cancer risk. In Asian countries with a high per capita consumption of green tea, prostate cancer mortality rates are among the lowest in the world,[ 34 ] and the risk of prostate cancer appears to be increased among Asian men who abandon their original dietary habits upon migrating to the United States.

With the increasing consumption of green tea worldwide, including by the U. population, emerging data from ongoing studies will further contribute to defining the cancer preventive activity of green tea or GTCs. Catechins other than EGCG were nondetectable or below quantifiable levels in the plasma in many trials.

Catechin tissue levels have also been reported, and high variations were quite common. Notably, catechin levels in prostate tissue were low to undetectable after the administration of Polyphenon E in one preprostatectomy study. Methylation status may be determined by polymorphisms of the catechol -O-methyltransferase COMT; the enzyme that methylates EGCG gene.

After 6 months, 6 of the 30 men in the placebo group were diagnosed with prostate cancer, whereas none of the 30 subjects in the GTC group were diagnosed with prostate cancer.

These findings suggest that GTCs may help prevent prostate cancer in groups at high risk of the disease. A larger, multicenter, randomized trial NCT in the United States studied 97 men with either HGPIN or atypical small acinar proliferation who received a GTC mixture Polyphenon E, mg, bid.

Because there is no clear evidence that HGPIN and atypical small acinar proliferation represent steps on a linear path to prostate cancer, these findings should be interpreted with caution.

A comparison of the estimated overall treatment effect showed a significantly greater reduction of serum PSA in men treated with Polyphenon E compared with controls Although a significant reduction in serum PSA was observed, no reduction in incidence of prostate cancer was observed in the group treated with green tea catechins compared with the placebo group.

Patients scheduled for radical prostatectomy were randomly assigned to drink green tea, black tea, or a soda five times a day for 5 days. Bioavailable tea polyphenols were found in prostate samples of the patients who had consumed green tea and black tea.

In an open label, phase II clinical study, prostate cancer patients scheduled for radical prostatectomy consumed four Polyphenon E tablets containing tea polyphenols, providing mg EGCG daily until surgery.

The Polyphenon E treatment had a positive effect on a number of prostate cancer biomarkers , including PSA, vascular endothelial growth factor VEGF , and IGF-1 a protein associated with increased risk of prostate cancer.

In a study, 50 prostate cancer patients were randomly assigned to receive Polyphenon E mg EGCG or a placebo daily for 3 to 6 weeks before surgery. Treatment with Polyphenon E resulted in greater decreases in serum levels of PSA and IGF-1 than did treatment with placebo, but these differences were not statistically significant.

The findings of this study suggest that the chemopreventive effects of green tea polyphenols may be through indirect means and that longer intervention studies may be needed. Although the green tea intervention was well tolerated by most study participants, no patient had a PSA response i.

In a study, patients with androgen-independent metastatic prostate cancer consumed 6 g of powdered green tea extract daily for up to 4 months. Green tea was well tolerated by most study participants.

However, six episodes of grade 3 toxicity occurred, involving insomnia , confusion , and fatigue. These results suggest that in patients with advanced prostate cancer, green tea may have limited benefits. The safety of tea and tea compounds is supported by centuries of consumption by the human population.

In four phase I, single-dose, and multidose studies that targeted healthy volunteers who took a botanical drug substance containing a mixture of catechins, Polyphenon E, and a dose range of to 1, mg EGCG was well tolerated. These studies have demonstrated that although increased oral bioavailability occurs when GTCs are consumed in a fasting state, increased gastrointestinal toxicity is also more common.

Gastrointestinal adverse effects were usually mild and seen most often at the higher dose levels. Onset of gastrointestinal events typically occurred within 2 to 3 hours of dosing and resolved within 2 hours.

No grade 3 or higher events were reported with a possible relationship to the study drug. Green tea has been well tolerated in clinical studies of men with prostate cancer.

These symptoms were mild for all but two men, who experienced severe anorexia and moderate dyspnea. Data from clinical trials [ 42 , 44 ] report long-term safety of EGCG containing GTCs, for use in men with precursor lesions of prostate cancer for prevention of prostate cancer.

One study [ 44 ] administered approximately mg EGCG per day for 1 year without any reported toxicities. trial, mg of EGCG containing Polyphenon E was administered for 1 year to nonfasting men with HGPIN and atypical small acinar proliferation.

More possible and probable grade 2 through grade 3 events in men who received Polyphenon E were observed and compared with those in men who received placebo. Only one man who received Polyphenon E reported grade 3 nausea, which was determined to possibly be related to the study agent.

In recent years, oral consumption of varying doses and compositions of green tea extracts GTEs has been associated with several instances of hepatotoxicity. Although hepatotoxicity in most cases resolved within 4 months of stopping GTEs, there have been cases of positive rechallenge and liver failure requiring a liver transplant.

One report described a case of acute liver failure that required a transplant in a woman who consumed GTE capsules. Because no other causal relationship could be identified, the treating physicians concluded that the fulminant liver failure experienced by this patient was most likely related to the consumption of over-the-counter GTE weight-loss supplements.

In addition, the sale of an ethanolic GTE sold as a weight-reduction aid was suspended in after reports associated hepatotoxicity four cases in Spain and nine cases in France with its use. Increased oral bioavailability occurs when GTEs are administered on an empty stomach after an overnight fast.

Increased toxicity, including hepatotoxicity, is observed when Polyphenon E or EGCG is administered to fasted dogs.

The FDA's Division of Drug Oncology Products has recommended that Polyphenon E be taken with food by subjects participating in clinical studies. In addition, frequent liver function tests should be considered while individuals are on treatment, especially in the first few months of trial initiation.

Lycopene is a phytochemical that belongs to a group of pigments known as carotenoids. It is red and lipophilic. As a natural pigment made by plants, lycopene helps to protect plants from light-induced stress,[ 1 ] and it also transfers light energy during photosynthesis.

Lycopene has been investigated for its role in chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease and cancer. Numerous epidemiological studies suggest that lycopene may help prevent cardiovascular disease. Lycopene may protect against cardiovascular disease by decreasing cholesterol synthesis and increasing the degradation of low-density lipoproteins,[ 3 ] although some interventional studies have shown mixed results.

A number of in vitro and in vivo studies suggest that lycopene may also be protective against cancers of the skin, breast, lung, and liver. The few human intervention trials have been small and generally focused on intermediate endpoints , not response of clinically evident disease or overall survival and, thus have limited translation to practice.

On the basis of overall evidence, the association between tomato consumption and reduced risk of prostate cancer is limited.

Several companies distribute lycopene as a dietary supplement. Therefore, premarket evaluation and approval of such supplements by the FDA are not required unless specific disease prevention or treatment claims are made. The FDA has not approved the use of lycopene as a treatment for cancer or any other medical condition.

In vitro studies that have examined a link between lycopene and prostate carcinogenesis have suggested several mechanisms by which lycopene might reduce prostate cancer risk.

Lycopene is broken down into a number of metabolites that are thought to have various biological effects, including antioxidant capabilities and a role in gap-junction communication.

Treating normal human prostate epithelial cells with lycopene resulted in dose-dependent growth inhibition, indicating that inhibition of prostate cell proliferation may be one way lycopene might lower the risk of prostate cancer. In addition, treating prostate cancer cells with lycopene resulted in a significant decrease in the number of lycopene-treated cells in the S phase of the cell cycle , suggesting that lycopene may lower cell proliferation by altering cell-cycle progression.

Some studies have suggested that cancer cells have altered cholesterol-biosynthesis pathways. Treating prostate cancer cells with lycopene resulted in dose-dependent decreases in 3-hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA HMG-CoA reductase the rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol synthesis , total cholesterol, and cell growth, and an increase in apoptosis.

However, adding mevalonate prevented the growth-inhibitory effects of lycopene, indicating that the mevalonate pathway may be important to the anticancer activity of lycopene. Lycopene may also affect cholesterol levels in prostate cancer cells by activating the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma PPARγ - liver X receptor alpha LXRα -ATP-binding cassette, subfamily 1 ABCA1 pathway , which leads to decreased cholesterol levels and may ultimately result in decreased cell proliferation.

ABCA1 mediates cholesterol efflux, and PPARγ has been shown to inhibit the growth and differentiation of prostate cancer cells. In one study, treating prostate cancer cells with lycopene resulted in increased expression of PPARγ, LXRα, and ABCA1 as well as lower total cholesterol.

In addition, when the cells were treated with a PPARγ antagonist , cell proliferation increased, whereas treating cells with a combination of the PPARγ antagonist and lycopene decreased cell proliferation. Adding lycopene to medium containing the LNCaP human prostate adenocarcinoma cell line resulted in decreased DNA synthesis and inhibition of androgen-receptor gene-element activity and expression.

Additionally, these effects in the cancer cells were observed at concentrations of lycopene that are relevant and achievable in vivo. Some studies have assessed possible beneficial interactions between lycopene and conventional cancer therapies.

In one such study, various types of prostate cancer cells were treated with a combination of lycopene and docetaxel , a drug used to treat patients with castration -resistant prostate cancer, or each drug alone. The combination treatment inhibited proliferation in four of five cell lines to a greater extent than did treatment with docetaxel alone.

The findings suggest that the mechanism for these effects may involve the IGF-1 receptor IGF-1R pathway. Mice that received lycopene beadlets exhibited a larger reduction in prostate cancer incidence compared with control mice than mice supplemented with tomato paste, suggesting that lycopene beadlets may provide greater chemopreventive effects than tomato paste.

Ketosamines are carbohydrate derivatives formed when food is dehydrated. In one study, FruHis a ketosamine in dehydrated tomatoes combined with lycopene resulted in greater growth inhibition of implanted rat prostate cancer cells than did lycopene or FruHis alone.

Lycopene has also been studied for potential therapeutic effects in xenograft models. Supplementing mice with lycopene or beta-carotene resulted in decreased tumor growth. Mice exhibited longer survival times and smaller tumors when treated with a combination of docetaxel and lycopene than when they were treated with docetaxel alone.

Several epidemiological studies have assessed potential associations between lycopene intake and prostate cancer incidence. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that populations with high intake of dietary lycopene have lower risk of prostate cancer.

An association between lycopene serum concentration and risk of cancer was also examined in men participating in the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor study in Finland.

In this prospective cohort study , an inverse association between lycopene levels and overall cancer risk was observed, suggesting that higher concentrations of lycopene may help lower cancer risk overall.

However, when the analysis was restricted to specific cancer types, an association was observed for other cancers RR, 0. Likewise, a systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated lycopene dietary intake and circulating lycopene with prostate cancer risk.

An inverse association between high levels of both circulating RR, 0. The National Cancer Institute's Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian PLCO Cancer Screening Trial is an ongoing, prospective study that has been a source of subjects for investigations of an association between lycopene intake and prostate cancer risk.

A study examined lycopene and tomato product intakes and prostate cancer risk among PLCO participants who had been followed for an average of 4. Lycopene and tomato product intakes were assessed via food frequency questionnaires.

Overall, no association was found between dietary intake of lycopene or tomato products and the risk of prostate cancer. However, among men with a family history of prostate cancer, increased lycopene consumption was associated with decreased prostate cancer risk.

The results suggested no significant difference in serum lycopene concentrations between healthy participants and participants who developed prostate cancer.

The Health Professionals Follow-up Study obtained dietary information and ascertained total and lethal prostate cancer cases from through January 31, Higher lycopene intake was inversely associated with total prostate cancer risk hazard ratio [HR], 0.

A subset analysis was restricted to men who had at least one negative PSA test at the onset, to reduce the influence of PSA screening on the association. The inverse association became markedly stronger HR, 0.

Levels of tumor markers for angiogenesis , apoptosis, and cellular proliferation and differentiation were monitored.

Three of the tumor angiogenesis markers were strongly associated with lycopene intake, so that men with higher intake had tumors that demonstrated less angiogenic potential. At least two studies examined the effect of lycopene blood levels on the risk of high-grade prostate cancer.

The first study examined the associations between carotenoid levels and the risk of high-grade prostate cancer, and also considered antioxidant-related genes and tumor instability. This study demonstrated that plasma carotenoids at diagnosis, particularly among men carrying specific somatic variations, were inversely associated with risk of high-grade prostate cancer.

Higher lycopene concentrations were associated with less genomic instability among men with low-grade disease, indicating that lycopene may inhibit progression of prostate cancer early in its natural history.

In another study examining whether carotenoid intake and adipose tissue carotenoid levels were inversely associated with prostate cancer aggressiveness, results suggested that diets high in lycopene may protect against aggressive prostate cancer in White American men, and diets high in beta-cryptoxanthin may protect against aggressive prostate cancer in African American men.

One study investigated the correlation between lycopene blood levels and the rate of progression of prostate cancer. This study examined plasma carotenoids and tocopherols in relation to PSA levels among men with biochemical recurrence of prostate cancer.

Percentage increase in alpha-tocopherol and trans-beta-carotene levels from baseline to month 3 was associated with lower PSA levels at 3 and 6 months. A study examined the association of prediagnosis and postdiagnosis dietary lycopene and tomato product intake with prostate-cancer specific mortality in a prospective cohort of men diagnosed with nonmetastatic prostate cancer.

No association between serum lycopene, tomato products, and prostate-cancer specific mortality was observed. Among men with high-risk cancers T3—T4, Gleason score 8—10, or nodal involvement , consistently reporting lycopene intake that was at or above the median was associated with lower prostate-cancer specific mortality.

In a recently reported prospective study of 27, U. Adventist men who were followed for up to 7. Associations of prostate cancer risk with raw tomatoes was not statistically significant. No differences in adjusted competing risk analyses were observed between aggressive and nonaggressive prostate cancers.

The study was limited to self-reported food frequency questionnaires for data collection; however, lycopene concentrations were not quantified in this population. The variability in these epidemiological study results may be related to lycopene source; exposure misclassification; inconsistent measures of intake; differences in absorption; differences in individual lycopene metabolism; lack of a dose response; and confounding lifestyle factors, such as obesity, use of tobacco and alcohol, other dietary differences, varying standardization of quantities and compositions of lycopene, geographical location, and genetic risk factors.

Most studies have examined the association of lycopene intake with the risk of all prostate cancers and have not separately considered indolent versus aggressive disease. Given these caveats, results based on epidemiological evidence should be interpreted with caution.

A number of clinical studies have been conducted investigating lycopene as a chemopreventive agent and as a potential treatment for prostate cancer. The bioavailability of lycopene has been examined and demonstrated in several studies relating lycopene to prostate cancer and other diseases.

The bioavailability of lycopene is greater in processed tomato products, such as tomato paste and tomato puree, than in raw tomatoes. It is postulated that these variations, at least in part, can be attributed to several single nucleotide polymorphisms in genes involved in red-pigment lycopene and lipid metabolism.

The end-of-study prostate lycopene concentration was 0. Prostate lycopene concentration was moderately correlated with postintervention plasma lycopene concentrations correlation coefficient, 0.

Consumption of typical servings of processed tomato products results in differing plasma and prostate lycopene concentrations. Factors including meal composition and genetics deserve further evaluation to determine their impacts on lycopene absorption, isomerization, and biodistribution.

There is evidence that dietary fat may help increase the absorption of carotenoids, including lycopene. In one experiment, healthy volunteers consumed mixed-vegetable salads with nonfat, low-fat, or full-fat salad dressing.

Analysis of blood samples indicated that eating full-fat salad dressing led to more carotenoid absorption than eating low-fat or nonfat dressing. However, this study found that combining olive oil, but not sunflower oil, with tomatoes resulted in greater plasma antioxidant activity.

Healthy men participated in a crossover design study that attempted to differentiate the effects of a tomato matrix from those of lycopene by using lycopene-rich red tomatoes, lycopene-free yellow tomatoes, and purified lycopene.

Sera samples collected before and after the interventions were incubated with lymph node cancer prostate cells to measure the expression of 45 target genes. In this placebo-controlled trial, circulating lycopene concentration increased only after consumption of red tomato paste and purified lycopene.

Lipid profile, antioxidant status, PSA, and IGF-1 were not modified by consumption of tomato pastes and lycopene. When prostate cancer cells were treated in vitro with sera collected from men after red tomato paste consumption, IGF binding protein-3 IGFBP-3 and the ratio of Bax to Bcl2 were up-regulated, and cyclin-D1, p53, and Nrf-2 were down-regulated compared with expression levels obtained using sera taken after the first washout period.

Intermediate gene expression changes were observed using sera collected from participants after consumption of yellow tomato paste with low carotenoid content.

Cell incubation with sera from men who consumed purified lycopene led to significant up-regulation of IGFBP-3, c-fos, and uPAR compared with sera collected after placebo consumption.

These findings suggest that lycopene may not be the only factor responsible for the cancer-protective effects of tomatoes. In another study, the effect of tomato sauce on apoptosis in benign prostatic hyperplasia BPH tissue and carcinomas was examined.

Patients scheduled for surgery who did not receive the tomato sauce pasta entrees served as control subjects. Those who consumed the tomato sauce pasta entrees exhibited significantly decreased serum PSA levels and increased apoptotic cell death in BPH tissue and carcinomas.

One study of 40 patients with high-grade prostate intraepithelial neoplasia HGPIN received 4 mg of lycopene twice a day or no lycopene supplementation for 2 years. A greater decrease in serum PSA levels was observed in men treated with lycopene supplements, compared with those who did not take the supplementation.

During follow-up, adenocarcinomas were diagnosed more often in patients who had not received the supplements 6 of 20 than in men who had received lycopene 2 of These findings suggest that lycopene may be effective in preventing HGPIN from progressing to prostate cancer.

No statistically significant difference was observed in serum PSA levels between the two treatment groups. No overall clinical benefit was seen in decreasing the rate of progression to prostate cancer. Baseline PSA levels showed no significant change.

Prostatic lycopene concentration was the only difference between those whose repeat biopsy showed HGPIN, prostatitis , or prostate cancer. A number of clinical trials investigating lycopene as a potential treatment for prostate cancer are listed below in Table 2.

Other studies have examined the potential therapeutic effect of lycopene-containing products in men with prostate cancer. The effects of lycopene supplementation on prostate tissue and prostate cancer biomarkers were investigated in men with localized prostate cancer in a pilot study.

Mean plasma PSA levels were lower in the intervention group compared with the control group. In a phase II, randomized, placebo-controlled trial,[ 46 ] 45 men with clinically localized prostate cancer received either 15, 30, or 45 mg of lycopene Lyc-O-Mato or no supplement from time of biopsy to prostatectomy 30 days.

Plasma lycopene increased from baseline to the end of treatment in all treatment groups, with the greatest increase observed in the 45 mg lycopene-supplemented arm. No toxicity was reported. Overall, men with prostate cancer had lower baseline levels of plasma lycopene, compared with disease-free controls, and similar to levels observed in previous studies in men with prostate cancer.

However, serum testosterone and SHBG levels in the control group remained unchanged. The mean difference between groups who received the lycopene supplementation demonstrated a lower percentage of cells expressing Ki, compared with the control group. These changes were not statistically significant, compared with the changes in the control arm for this sample size and duration of intervention.

Although antioxidant properties of lycopene have been hypothesized to be primarily responsible for its beneficial effects, this study suggests that other mechanisms mediated by steroid hormones may also be involved. Analysis of the PSA-doubling time pretreatment vs.

post-treatment showed a median increase after supplementation for days; however, this was not statistically significant. Serum PSA levels did not respond to lycopene treatment. Plasma lycopene levels rose and appeared to plateau by 3 months for all doses.

The results indicate that, although lycopene may be safe and well tolerated, it did not alter serum PSA levels in biochemically relapsed prostate cancer patients.

By the end of the study, serum PSA levels had almost doubled in 12 of the 17 patients, and 5 of 17 patients had achieved PSA stabilization. Although this was a small study without a control group , the results suggest that lycopene may not be beneficial for patients with advanced prostate cancer.

Only one patient in this study exhibited a decrease in PSA level. Several episodes of gastrointestinal side effects were noted after eating the tomato paste or drinking the tomato juice. Perhaps, future clinical trials should include longer duration of consistent lycopene exposure, while accounting for variations in individual absorption of carotenoids and heterogeneity of high-risk HGPIN, atypical small acinar proliferation and prostate cancer patient populations indolent vs.

aggressive prostate cancer or androgen-dependent vs. androgen-independent prostate cancer. Studies evaluating lycopene in randomized clinical trials targeting men at high risk for prostate cancer and populations with prostate cancer have indicated relatively few toxicities at the dose and duration of intervention.

When adverse effects occurred, they tended to present as gastrointestinal symptoms [ 49 ] and, in one study, the symptoms resolved when lycopene was taken with meals. Pectin is a complex polysaccharide contained in the primary cell walls of terrestrial plants.

The word pectin comes from the Greek word for congealed or curdled. Plant pectin is used in food processing as a gelling agent also in the formulation of oral and topical medicines as a stabilizer and nonbiodegradable matrix to support controlled drug delivery.

Some research suggests that MCP may be protective against various types of cancer, including colon , lung , and prostate cancer. MCP may exert its anticancer effects by interfering with tumor cell metastasis or by inducing apoptosis. MCP was also shown to activate natural killer cells in leukemic cell cultures, suggesting it may be able to stimulate the immune system.

Several companies distribute MCP as a dietary supplement. The FDA has not approved the use of MCP as a treatment for cancer or any other medical condition.

In a study, pectins were investigated for their anticancer properties. Prostate cancer cells were treated with three different pectins; CP, Pectasol PeS, a dietary supplement containing MCP , and fractionated pectin powder FPP.

FPP induced apoptosis to a much greater degree than did CP and PeS. Further analysis revealed that treating prostate cancer cells with heated CP resulted in levels of apoptosis similar to those following treatment with FPP.

This suggests that specific structural features of pectin may be responsible for its ability to induce apoptosis in prostate cancer cells.

In a study, prostate cancer cells were treated with PeS or PectaSol-C, the only two MCPs previously used in human trials. Excessive zinc intake reduces the absorption of other vital nutrients like iron and copper.

Certain antibiotics may interact with zinc, decreasing both absorption when taken together. Diuretics increase the removal of zinc from the body, reducing nutrient stores.

Lycopene is a plant chemical carotenoid that gives fruits and vegetables a red color. Tomatoes are a potent source of lycopene. Lycopene supports prostate health through its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that protect cells from damage. Consuming tomato-based supplements and products that contain lycopene may alleviate symptoms of an enlarged prostate.

Lycopene may also reduce the risk of certain cancers, particularly prostate cancer. Insufficient research exists to encourage the use of lycopene for prostate health and to reduce the risk of prostate cancer. Lycopene from food or tomato-based products may support prostate health. However, taking lycopene supplements does not seem to have the same beneficial effect.

Lycopene in dosages of 15 to 45 mg daily for up to six months appears safe. Tomatoes contain 0. The amount of lycopene in a tomato depends on the type and ripeness of the fruit. Lycopene may slow blood clotting. Taking lycopene with an anticoagulant or antiplatelet medication may increase the risk of bruising and bleeding.

Exercise caution when using lycopene with other medicines that may increase the risk of bleeding. Catechins fight free radicals unstable molecules to provide antioxidant and anti-inflammatory benefits. Epigallocatechin-gallate EGCG , a type of catechin, may prevent cancer cell development.

EGCG participates in cell pathways that inhibit cell growth and the release of inflammatory molecules. Evidence is mixed on the benefits of green tea for prostate health. Some studies show a positive effect of three cups or more of green tea daily on reducing the risk of prostate cancer.

One cup 8 ounces or milliliters of green tea contains about mg of EGCG. Other research notes a decrease in prostate cancer with to mg of EGCG daily. Still, the research is not unanimous. Consuming mg daily of EGCG is well-tolerated and safe. Taking EGCG supplements on an empty stomach may be more effective, but it may also increase the risk of toxicity.

Modified citrus pectin MCP has been recognized for its anticancer properties, specifically its ability to influence tumor development. Pectins are an indigestible, soluble fiber in plant cell walls.

Few studies exist on MCP for prostate health, but research is promising. Long-term supplementation of MCP may slow the progression of prostate cancer.

MCP blocks the activity of a specific molecule galectin-3 protein that contributes to cancer development. MCP is generally regarded as safe by the Food and Drug Administration FDA and is well-tolerated by most individuals. Still, additional research is necessary to determine the optimal dosage for prostate health.

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin essential for countless body processes. Vitamin D may reduce circulating sex hormone androgen and prostate-specific antigen PSA levels and curb cell growth to support prostate health and lower the risk of prostate cancer.

There is mixed evidence supporting vitamin D supplementation for prostate health. Some research suggests supplementing with vitamin D improves PSA levels. Still, other studies show no benefit of vitamin D compared to a placebo an ineffective substance given to people in control groups.

Consuming more vitamin D may be linked to a lower rate of BPH. Vitamin D may reduce inflammation and prevent prostate growth, two attributes of BPH. The RDA for vitamin D for males between 18 and 70 years is 15 mcg or international units IU daily. For men older than 70, the RDA is 20 mcg or IU. Excessive vitamin D supplementation is toxic.

High vitamin D intake contributes to elevated calcium levels hypercalcemia , which can cause kidney failure in severe cases. Moreover, some research suggests vitamin D supplementation may increase the rate of death mortality in people with prostate cancer.

Vitamin D may interact in the following ways:. Soy foods like tofu , miso, and soy milk contain phytochemicals associated with health benefits. In particular, isoflavones a type of phytochemical found in soy foods support prostate health. Soy does not impact male reproductive hormones or negatively affect fertility.

In fact, eating soy foods is linked to a lower rate of prostate cancer. In particular, unfermented soy foods such as tofu, soy milk, and edamame significantly reduce the risk of prostate cancer.

Research yields mixed results for the use of soy isoflavone supplements. Isoflavone supplements may result in similar outcomes as eating soy foods, but more research is needed. Moreover, some studies evaluating soy isoflavone supplements included other ingredients, so results may not be due to isoflavones.

Adverse effects may occur with the use of isoflavone supplements. Additionally, evidence for isoflavone supplements for prostate health is minimal and unsupported. Instead, opt for soy foods, which are encouraged as part of a healthy eating pattern and have minimal side effects. Many herbs are marketed for prostate health, but whether these supplements truly support prostate health is not clear.

Saw palmetto is a shrub-like palm tree that treats conditions affecting male and female reproductive organs. Some research suggests that saw palmetto may reduce urinary symptoms, such as urinary leaks incontinence and increased urgency and frequency.

Additionally, saw palmetto may improve prostate inflammation. Other research shows no benefit of saw palmetto for BPH symptoms. Saw palmetto is generally well-tolerated with only mild side effects of digestion issues or headaches. There are no apparent interactions between medications and saw palmetto.

According to research, bark from the African cherry tree Prunus africana , also known as the African plum or African prune, reduced symptoms associated with BPH. African cherry bark contains phytosterols , which help lower inflammation. The most common dosage for African cherry is to mg daily for one to two months.

Still, additional research is necessary to determine the optimal dosage, safety, and any possible interactions with medications. Limited research exists for rye grass pollen extract Cernilton.

However, existing research shows its benefit on prostate health is multifaceted. Rye grass pollen extract relaxes muscles in the urethra, reduces inflammation, and inhibits cell growth.

Research suggests mg of rye grass pollen daily alleviates BPH symptoms. Still, the exact dosage to support prostate health is unclear. In the United States, the FDA does not regulate supplements the way it regulates prescription drugs.

That means some supplement products may not contain what the label says. When choosing a supplement , look for third-party tested products and consult a healthcare provider, an RD or RDN, or a pharmacist.

Besides supplements, lifestyle can support prostate health. Incorporating movement and plant-based foods into everyday life helps maintain prostate health. Movement preserves prostate health by lowering inflammation and sympathetic nervous system activity.

Pelvic floor exercise may alleviate symptoms of an enlarged prostate , such as trouble with urination. However, exercise should not be used in place of medical treatment for lower urinary tract issues or BPH.

A vegetarian or vegan diet may lower the risk of death from prostate cancer. A plant-based diet is also linked to lower PSA levels.

PSA is used to help screen for prostate issues, including infection, inflammation, and prostate cancer. Cruciferous vegetables, soy, and tomatoes all foods common in a plant-based diet contribute to a lower risk of prostate cancer. Routine appointments with healthcare providers support prostate health.

Issues affecting the ability to urinate could be a sign of prostate problems.