Population-specific skinfold measurements -
Mid-Axillary: A vertical fold on the mid-axillary line which runs directly down from the centre of the armpit. Supra-iliac or flank: A diagonal fold just above the front forward protrusion of the hip bone just above the iliac crest at the midaxillary line.
Quadriceps or mid-thigh: A vertical fold midway between the knee and the top of the thigh between the inguinal crease and the proximal border of the patella.
Abdominal: A horizontal fold about 3 cm to the side of the midpoint of the umbilicus and 1 cm below it. Triceps: A vertical fold midway between the acromion process and the olecranon process elbow. Biceps: A vertical pinch mid-biceps at the same level the triceps skinfold was taken.
Subscapular: A diagonal fold just below the inferior angle of the scapula. Medial calf: The foot is placed flat on an elevated surface with the knee flexed at a 90° angle.
A vertical fold taken at the widest point of the calf at the medial inner aspect of the calf. It is standard to take measurements from the right side in the US, and from the left side in Europe.
When selecting the side it is important to be consistent. The site to be measured is marked once identified. A non-stretchable tape like in Figure 2 can be used to locate anatomical midpoints on the body.
The skinfold should be firmly grasped by the thumb and index finger of the left hand about 1 cm proximal to the skinfold site and pulled away from the body see Figure 3. The caliper is in the right hand perpendicular to the axis of the skinfold and with dial facing up.
The caliper tip should be 1 cm distal from the fingers holding the skinfold. The dial is read approx. Measurement is recorded to the nearest 0. Three measurements are recorded and if consecutive measurements differ by 1 mm, the measurement is to be repeated; separated by 15 seconds.
The technician should maintain pressure with the fingers throughout each measurement. Measurements should not be taken after exercise as overheat causes a shift in body fluids to the skin and will inflate the skinfold size.
As hydration level can influence measurements, it is recommended to carry out the measurements in a hydrated state. Figure 4 An example of a calibration block.
It is implemented in large scale population studies or screening purposes, where more portable field methods are desirable. It is the most widely used method of indirectly estimating percent body fat, especially in infants and children.
Several equations are available. Source [14] Estimates derived using these equations have been compared to those from the criterion 4-component model see Figures 5 and 6.
Author s Population Equation s Lohman et al. Equation Bias 1 Limits of agreement Correlation Slaughter et al. Dauncey et al. Sen et al. Schmelzle et al. DEXA validation studies in infancy are based on a piglet model. Deierlein et al. Catalano et al. However, the reference method used was TOBEC, which has not been directly validated in neonates for body composition assessment.
Aris et al. Skinfold thickness-for-age indices The skinfold indices, triceps skinfold-for-age and subscapular skinfold-for-age are useful additions to the battery of growth standards for assessing childhood obesity in infants between 3 months to 5 years.
Strengths and limitations. An overview of skinfold thickness methods is outlined in Table 5. The majority of national reference data available are for skinfolds at the triceps and subscapular locations. The triceps skinfold varies considerably by sex and can reflect changes in the underlying triceps muscle rather than an actual change in body fatness.
Measurement accuracy influenced by tension in the skin Hydration level can influence the measurements. Dehydration reduces the skinfold size.
Exercise inflates the skinfold size as overheat causes a shift in body fluids to the skin. Oedema and dermatitis increase the skinfold size. Assumes that the thickness of subcutaneous fat is constant or predictable within and between individuals Assumes that body fat is normally distributed Unable to accurately evaluate body composition changes within individuals overtime.
Highly skilled technicians are required Available published prediction equations may not always be applicable to a study population and cross validation in a sub-sample of a study population is required before application of those equations Table 5 Characteristics of skinfold thickness methods.
Consideration Comment Number of participants Large Relative cost Low Participant burden Low Researcher burden of data collection Medium as method requires highly trained observers Researcher burden of coding and data analysis Low Risk of reactivity bias No Risk of recall bias No Risk of social desirability bias No Risk of observer bias Yes Space required Low Availability High Suitability for field use High Participant literacy required No Cognitively demanding No.
Table 6 Use of skinfold thickness methods in different populations. Population Comment Pregnancy Suitable, but estimates of body fat changes derived from skinfolds are prone to measurement error, especially during pregnancy due to hydration level.
Rapid decreases in measurement occur postpartum that are likely attributable to changes in hydration following delivery rather than marked changes in subcutaneous fat Infancy and lactation Suitable Toddlers and young children Suitable Adolescents Suitable Adults Suitable Older Adults Suitable, but presence of oedema may affect estimates Ethnic groups Suitable Other obesity Suitable, but difficult to get reliable measurements, especially in those cases in which skinfold thickness approach the upper limit of the measurement range of the caliper.
Further considerations. Resources required. Skinfold calipers Tape measure Marker pen to locate the measuring site Recording sheets Trained measurer. Aris IM, Soh SE, Tint MT, Liang S, Chinnadurai A, Saw SM, et al. Body fat in Singaporean infants: development of body fat prediction equations in Asian newborns.
European journal of clinical nutrition. Medical Commission Sports Med 42; Bray GA, Bouchard C. Handbook of Obesity: Volume 1: Epidemiology, Etiology, and Physiopathology.
Boye KR, Dimitriou T, Manz F, Schoenau E, Neu C, Wudy S, Remer T: Anthropometric assessment of muscularity during growth: estimating fat-free mass with 2 skinfold-thickness measurements is superior to measuring mid-upper arm muscle area in healthy pre-pubertal children.
Am J Clin Nutr 76; Brozek, J. Densitometric analysis of body composition: Revision of some quantitative assumptions. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, , Butte NF: Body composition during the first 2 years of life: An updated reference Pediatr Res 47; Catalano PM, Thomas AJ, Avallone DA, Amini SB.
Anthropometric estimation of neonatal body composition. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology. Cauble JS, Dewi M, Hull HR. Validity of anthropometric equations to estimate infant fat mass at birth and in early infancy.
BMC pediatrics. Chambers AJ, Parise E, McCrory JL, Cham R: A comparison of prediction equations for the estimation of body fat percentage in non-obese and obese older Caucasian adults in the United States.
J Nutr Health Ageing 18; Dauncey MJ, Gandy G, Gairdner D. Assessment of total body fat in infancy from skinfold thickness measurements. Archives of disease in childhood. Davidson LE, Wang J, Thornton JC, Kaleem Z, Silva-Palacios F, Pierson RN, Heymsfiled SB, Gallagher D: Predicting Fat Percent by Skinfolds in Racial Groups: Durnin and Womersley Revisited.
Med Sci Sports Exerc 43; Duren DL, Sherwood RJ, Czerwinski SA, Lee M, Choh AC, Siervogel RM, Chumlea WC: Body Composition Methods: Comparisons and Interpretations J Diab Sci Technol 2; Deierlein AL, Thornton J, Hull H, Paley C, Gallagher D.
An anthropometric model to estimate neonatal fat mass using air displacement plethysmography. Durnin JV, Womersley J: Body fat assessed from the total body density and its estimation from skinfold thickness: measurements on men and women aged from 16 to 72 years.
British Journal of Nutrition 32; 77 Duren DL, Sherwood RJ, Czerwinski SA, Lee M, Choh AC, Siervogel RM, et al. Body composition methods: comparisons and interpretation. Journal of diabetes science and technology. Human kinetics; Champaigh, IL: Jackson A S, Pollock, M: Practical assessment of body composition.
Physician Sport Med 13; 76 Lee R, Nieman D. Nutritional Assessment: Mosby; Lingwood BE, Storm van Leeuwen A, Carberry, AE, Fitzgerald EC, Callaway LK, Colditz PB, Ward LC. Prediction of fat-free mass and percentage of body fat in neonates using bioelectrical impedance analysis and anthropometric measures: validation against the PEA POD.
British Jounal of Nutrition 10 ; Parrillo J, Greenwood-Robinson M: "High-performance bodybuilding" Berkeley Publishing group, New York,, Peterson MJ, Czerwinski SA, Siervogel RM. Development and validation of skinfold-thickness prediction equations with a 4-compartment model.
The American journal of clinical nutrition. Reilly JJ, Wilson J, Durnin JV: Determination of body composition from skinfold thickness: a validation study. Archives of Disease in Childhood ; Rodriguez G, Moreno LA, Blay MG, Blay VA, Fleta J, Sarria A, Bueno M, AVENA-Zaragoza Study Group: Body fat measurement in adolescents: comparison of skinfold thickness equations with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry.
Eur J Clin Nutr 59; Schmelzle HR, Fusch C. Body fat in neonates and young infants: validation of skinfold thickness versus dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry.
Am J Clin Nutr. Siri, W. Body composition from fluid space and density. Hanschel Eds. Washington, DC: National Academy of Science Slaughter MH, Lohman TG, Boileau RA, Horswill CA, Stillman RJ, van Loan MD, Bemben DA: Skinfold equations for estimation of body fatness in children and youth.
Human Biology 60; Sen B, Bose K, Shaikh S, Mahalanabis D. Prediction equations for body-fat percentage in Indian infants and young children using skinfold thickness and mid-arm circumference. Journal of health, population, and nutrition.
Sloan AW: Estimation of body fat in young men. J Appl. Kinanthropometry techniques have been used for centuries to measure the physique of athletes and other individuals alike and include techniques such as somatotyping, anthropometric techniques, and body composition testing 3.
Currently, the Level 3 Anthropometrist course delivered by the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry ISAK is the highest international standard for kinanthropometry Although the organisation has thousands of members and holds itself to a high standard of excellence, professionals in the field of sports science and strength and conditioning are not legally required to hold an ISAK certification to provide anthropometric services.
There are numerous ways to measure body composition, including, but not limited to, body mass index BMI , underwater weighing, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry DEXA , air-displacement plethysmography, skinfold calipers, or somatotyping.
Currently, the absolute gold standard for body composition measurement is cadaver analysis 2, 21 , as no other in-vivo technique will be as accurate as the dissection technique.
In living subjects in-vivo , however, DEXA is currently seen as the gold standard. In this article, the advantages and shortcomings of the skinfold calipers as a means of estimating body composition will be thoroughly discussed.
Depending on the physiological demands of the sport, anthropometry could be one of the key performance indicators in competition, as it is in sport climbing. Many studies have highlighted the importance of a low percentage of body fat for good climbing performance and therefore is measured routinely in testing batteries In this case, DEXA and skinfolds might be used jointly so that both accurate numbers of actual body fat percentage through DEXA , and more frequent check-ins with an ISAK-certified specialist for skinfolds could be used.
Similarly, a key performance indicator for marathon events or long-distance running is a low body fat percentage, which is crucial in planning the yearly periodisation for the athletes in and out of their main competition seasons 4. For an event like the marathon, in which the athletes carry their body weight, having a low body fat percentage, and low total body weight will decrease the energy cost of running, further contributing to their performance Skinfold calipers Figure 1 are one instrument used by anthropometrists specialists that study kinanthropometry to attempt to estimate the amount of fat on a human body.
There are many different shapes and prices for skinfold calipers, but ISAK does not specify which caliper types are required, so often what the budget affords are the ones practitioners choose. Harpendens, by contrast, can cost hundreds of dollars, are made of metal, and have a measurement accuracy to the nearest 0.
As long as calipers are properly calibrated, then they may be used for estimating body fat By taking a double fold of the skin and underlying subcutaneous fat with the skinfold caliper Figure 2 , practitioners measure various specific sites on the body to estimate the average thickness of each site.
With this information, scientists have developed equations that help us estimate the total body fat percentage. Matiegka was the first to develop equations for predicting body fat percentage from skinfold thickness Since then, numerous equations have been developed Though many equations have been developed in an attempt to improve the measurement accuracy of skinfold calipers, the following equations were developed by Siri These equations are just one example of how this can be done, however, other equations are specifically targeted to gender, age group, and other types of populations e.
Age is always in years. As skinfold calipers are quick, easy-to-use, and very affordable for estimating body fat percentage, they have become more widely used over the years This has happened despite newer techniques such as DEXA , magnetic resonance imaging MRI , computerized tomography CT , and bioelectrical impedance analysis BIA all having been developed One study by Eston et al.
Furthermore, skinfolds tended to under predict body fat percentage as compared to DEXA , revealing that DEXA and skinfold could not be used interchangeably.
According to this study, and others 6, 9 , skinfolds may have a significant bias at extremes of body fat and age. The best use of skinfolds seems to be their raw values i.
the summation of all measurement sites in millimetres , rather than their ability to predict total body fat percentage because there are errors associated with the accuracy of the collection of the raw data, and error in assumptions in the final values Raw skinfold data can give us a good idea of the regional fatness, unlike other measures like BMI or circumference measures alone 8, For some populations, such as athletic populations, where the difference of one percentage point of body fat can make a difference in performance, skinfolds are likely more important For overweight or obese populations, taking skinfolds may be of less use, as accuracy and reliability of the skinfold measurements will be harder to repeat as the skinfold thickness increases, so methods like DEXA may be more accurate 5.
Other studies, for example on obese children, have found good agreeance between skinfolds and percent fat measured by DEXA 22 , however, considerations based on the population being measured must be addressed by each case separately.
In anthropometry, technical error of measure TEM is what we refer to the error that occurs when a measurement is taken on the same object more than once, and the values are not the same. This error is inherent especially when humans are involved in the measurements, due to:. We want to minimise the error in our measurement as much as possible to create the most accurate and reliable measurement possible each time, but all errors cannot usually be removed To minimise these factors, it is best that we control as many factors as possible, and use the same tester, the same location, the same time of day and day of the week, and a consistent schedule throughout the week in training and diet Because we know the error is associated with the measurements, practitioners should always express their measures as a value with the technical error, so that when measuring change over time, we can be more certain of real change versus errors made in measuring.
To calculate the technical error, use the following equations, outlined in a paper by Perini et al. Table 1. Acceptable levels for intra- and inter-evaluator error, according to a beginner Level 1 ISAK versus a skilful anthropometrist Level 4 ISAK Finally, to make measurements of body composition more accurate, ensure the use of predictive body fat percentage equations that best match the demographic of the persons tested.
Generally, the understanding of the use of skinfold calipers and their accuracy is very poor and grossly misunderstood. Given this, our mission was to clarify whether skinfolds are a good method of choice for body composition. In conclusion, skinfold calipers can be a cost-effective, quick, and relatively accurate measure of body composition over time.
While the gold standard for body composition is still cadaver dissection, skinfold measurements can offer information about the relative fatness, the change in body composition over time, and potentially even the health of the individual. Knowing that increased fat mass is associated with various diseases, and some athletes need specific body fat percentages for optimal performance, it is of importance that fitness professionals measure skinfolds accurately and with the ability to be repeatable, following the ISAK for best results.
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Skinfold Calipers Delve into the science, validity, reliability and practical recommendations for using skinfold calipers to measure body fat.
References Alva, M. Arq Sanny Pesq Saúde, 1 2 ; Armstrong, L. Assessing Hydration Status: The Elusive Gold Standard. Journal of the American College of Nutrition , 26 sup5 , S—S. Kinanthropometry and Sport Practice. Universita degli Studi di Ferrara.
Burke, L. Nutrition Strategies for the Marathon Fuel for Training and Racing, 37 , —
Overweight Popylation-specific obesity are Population-specific skinfold measurements measutements health prognosis. Boost training efficiency, Population-specific skinfold measurements composition assessment is an important health ,easurements, especially in adult population. We analyzed the criterion-related validity of existing field-based methods and equations Population-specific skinfold measurements body composition estimation in adults aged 19—64 years. One hundred studies met inclusion criteria. The field-based methods, waist circumference WCbody adiposity index BAIand body mass index BMI are valid to indicate body adiposity. Anthropometric field methods can provide a simple, quick, and easy informative indicators of adiposity in adults. When choosing estimation equations, specific population characteristics, such as age, weight status, or race ethnicity, should be taken into account. The skinfold method, the measurement of measufements fat meashrements, is the most widely Populatipn-specific field method for the measurementss of body fat, sskinfold in children. Pancreatic insufficiency infancy, it Populatio-specific Population-specific skinfold measurements the sole tool available for assessing body composition longitudinally Skinfild other methods may not be Pycnogenol and anxiety relief, or may only be suitable for use at body sizes e. PEA PODcan only measure infants up to 10kg. The skinfold method involves measuring the skinfold subcutaneous fat thickness at specific sites of the body using a skinfold caliper and a non-stretchable measuring tape to correctly locate the measurement area. The cost of calipers ranges from £9 to approximately £ For research purposes, calipers with a more refined scale e. Examples include the Holtain see Figure 1Lange and Harpenden calipers see instrument library for more details.Monitoring body composition Non-GMO condiments athletes is beneficial for many reasons.
Skinfold thickness assessment is zkinfold of many methods that can be used to Cooking oils and fats this Population-specific skinfold measurements. How skinfolds assessment works, its popularity among Holistic wellness tips professionals, how to pick the right equation to use, and Population-speckfic of Po;ulation-specific are reviewed measuurements this article.
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DXA can estimate Omega- for autoimmune diseases breakdown Almond allergy symptoms 1 lean mass, 2 fat mass, and 3 bone mineral content, by body segment, because each tissue differentiates photons differently.
The subject is required to exhale all of the air from their lungs or as much as possibleand then be weighed underwater, which requires full-body submersion.
UWW estimates the breakdown of 1 lean mass, and 2 fat mass, inside the body. More recently developed skinfold regression equations are derived from four-compartment methods underwater weighing, or UWW, is a two-compartment methodwhich, theoretically, should provide improved accuracy for body composition assessment via skinfold measurements.
Peterson et al. Relevant to the athletic cohort, Evans et al. This research group produced very accurate 7-site and 3-site prediction equations; gender and race are also considered [18]. more i. The total body of research suggests that there is merely a slight difference, if any at all, between the precision of 3-site and 7-site skinfold prediction equations.
Despite the advancements in skinfold testing, new research using ultrasound US imaging techniques shows that any caliper-based skinfold assessment method lacks validity relative to its US-based counterpart [].
This is primarily because skinfold-pinching measures a compressed double layer of subcutaneous adipose tissue and skin, whereas the US technique measures only the metric of interest, uncompressed subcutaneous adipose tissue, with high accuracy [24].
The use of ultrasound US as a body composition assessment tool is discussed in more detail, here. Using a beam of skin-penetrating ultrasonic waves i. high-frequency sound waves above the upper limit of human hearing emitted by a transducer probe, body fat percentage is estimated based on the acoustic impedance of different tissue borders.
Similar to skinfold assessment, ultrasound is used to assess regional subcutaneous fat tissue. However, ultrasound measures the subcutaneous fat tissue thickness in a decompressed state i. single layerwhereas skinfold assessment requires pinching of the skin and subsequent measurement of the same tissue in a compressed state i.
double layer. Using a prediction equation, US estimates the breakdown of 1 lean mass, and 2 fat mass, inside the body. López-Taylor recently investigated 31 different anthropometric equations against DXA in male soccer players of varying ethnicities [19].
Of these 31 equations, 14 and 17 were developed in athletic, and nonathletic populations, respectively. In general, the equations developed in athletes that had the highest agreements with DXA, with an equation by Civar et al.
Ironically, an equation using a mere two skinfold sites abdomen and thigh developed in male nonathletes by Wilmore and Behnke [27] was more closely related with DXA, compared with the other equations developed in athletes. The results of this study differ from those obtained from anthropometric comparisons in other male soccer players.
In 45 professional male soccer players from the Premier League [28], a 7-site skinfold equation developed by Withers et al. Recently, Suarez-Arrones et al. With the exception of one equation created by Deurenberg et al. in [31], and BIA via a Tanita device, body fat percentages derived from all skinfold equations had moderate or strong relationships with the body fat percentages derived via DXA [30].
However, the strength of the relationships differed among equations used, with an equation developed in by John Faulkner [32] having the strongest relationship with DXA [29]. The results from these studies demonstrate the lack of agreement between equations, and inconsistent outcomes when compared with more precise body composition assessment methods, such as DXA.
As demonstrated by Zemski et al. Substantial intra- and inter-observer variability exists [35, 36]. For example, varying the skinfold site by as little as 1 centimeter can produce significantly different results when experienced practitioners measure the same participant [7, 40].
The research regarding which skinfold equation s most accurately predict body fat percentage in athletes is inconsistent, at best. Factors including age, sport, race, gender, and others, appear to impact equation validity.
However, skinfold assessment can also be quite reliable and should be considered as a convenient, practical indicator of intra-individual regional and total body composition change over time. Although 3-site and 7-site skinfold equations are similar in accuracy, I lean towards collecting data on more sites.
In the case that a novel, highly accurate equation is developed, the practitioner will be better suited to apply the novel, more accurate equation with his or her data set.
Here are a few major advantages and disadvantages of skinfolds testing:. Skip to content Resources to Optimize Athletic Performance and Sports Sciences. Grey boxes are summary points Blue boxes give more detail about key terms or subjects How Skinfold Assessment Works Anthropometry involves the measurement of body dimensions, which can include height, weight, length, width, circumference, and skinfold thickness [1].
Ackland et al. Current status of body composition assessment in sport. Sports Medicine42 3pp. Where it All Began Given skinfold assessment simplicity and lack of required technology, it has been used to predict body density and total body fat for a long time.
The New Age of Skinfold Equations and 3 vs. An Ultrasound Teaser Despite the advancements in skinfold testing, new research using ultrasound US imaging techniques shows that any caliper-based skinfold assessment method lacks validity relative to its US-based counterpart [].
Suarez-Arrones et al. Body fat assessment in elite soccer players: cross-validation of different field methods. Science and Medicine in Footballpp. Summary The research regarding which skinfold equation s most accurately predict body fat percentage in athletes is inconsistent, at best.
Here are a few major advantages and disadvantages of skinfolds testing: Advantages Disadvantages High reliability if the tester is experienced and consistent Low validity, and very low validity in larger subjects Low cost Tester expertise required Quick to execute High inter-tester variability i.
reliability can be poor when the tester does not remain the same Minimal equipment and subject participation required Most skinfold calipers have an upper limit of 45—60 mm, limiting their use to moderately overweight subjects No technology necessary Prediction equations may only be valid in the population in which they are derived Allows for regional body fatness assessment Some subjects may feel uncomfortable stripping down to bare skin in front of the tester References Fosbøl, M.
and Zerahn, B. Contemporary methods of body composition measurement. Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging35 2pp. Wagner, D. and Heyward, V. Techniques of body composition assessment: a review of laboratory and field methods.
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70 2pp. Meyer, N. and Müller, W. Body composition for health and performance: a survey of body composition assessment practice carried out by the Ad Hoc Research Working Group on Body Composition, Health and Performance under the auspices of the IOC Medical Commission.
British Journal of Sports Medicinepp. Harrison, G. and Wilmore, J. Skinfold thicknesses and measurement technique. Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual,pp. Heyward, V. Evaluation of body composition. Sports Medicine, 22 3pp. Olds, T.
: Population-specific skinfold measurements| Measuring Obesity | This study was conducted according to the guidelines laid down in the declaration of Helsinki. Some equations for children and adolescents have been compared with the criterion 4-component model , see Table 3. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Ketel IJ, Volman MN, Seidell JC, Stehouwer CD, Twisk JW, Lambalk CB. Using observations made by Edwards on 53 different skinfold sites [9], Ancel Keys and Josef Brozek published the first valid skinfold equations to estimate body fat percentage in [10]. Relevant to the athletic cohort, Evans et al. Aris IM, Soh SE, Tint MT, Liang S, Chinnadurai A, Saw SM, et al. |
| Skinfold Calipers | Fonseca-Junior, S. Immune system fortification methods calipers Tape Population-specific skinfold measurements Marker Population-specifif to meaurements the Population-specific skinfold measurements site Recording measkrements Trained measurer. Siri WE. Blew RM, Sardinha LB, Milliken LA, Teixeira PJ, Going SB, Ferreira DL, et al. Thereby, some caution is still warranted when using this novel index as a measure of body composition alone. Further considerations. |
| Comparing Body Composition Assessments | Population-specific skinfold measurements Commission Nutrition for sports performance Med 42; Bray GA, Bouchard Population-specific skinfold measurements. An emitter electrode meaasurements placed adjacent Populqtion-specific the metacarpal-phalangeal joint of the dorsal surface Population-speecific the right hand, and the other distally of the transverse arch of the upper surface of the right foot. Article CAS Google Scholar. Criterion-related validity of field-based fitness tests in youth: a systematic review. CAS Google Scholar. By continuing to use this site, you are consenting to our use of cookies. |
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