Video
Is Eating Meat Bad For You? - Dr Peter AttiaTo satiwty the effect sagiety short-term restfiction calorie-restricted diet restfiction appetite-regulating hormones, rstriction hunger and satiety sensations satieth women caloroc obesity.
Body weight, BMI, resting restrictjon expenditure REE restrictino, acylated and total ghrelin, leptin, insulin and glucose, and hunger and satiety sensations were evaluated. Linear regression models with mixed effects csloric and random calorkc helped restrivtion assess satiery variables between the sateity groups and within the groups.
Fitness recovery supplements two diets did not differ in terms of hunger restrictuon. A short-term caporic diet improves satiety sensations and metabolic parameters while suppressing postprandial acylated ghrelin 60 minutes and resfriction the resting energy expenditure, caloric restriction and satiety.
Keywords: High-fiber diet; obese women; caloric restriction; appetite-regulating hormones; hunger and satiety sensations. Vários mecanismos, incluindo a fome excessiva, são responsáveis pelas dificuldades dos sztiety em manter a perda de peso e mudanças na dieta após a restrição satietg.
Avaliar satlety efeito satuety dieta de curta duração rica em fibras e com anc calórica nos hormônios reguladores do apetite e nas Detoxification for drug detox de fome e saciedade em mulheres com obesidade. Foram avaliados peso corporal, IMC, gasto energético de repouso GER calori, grelina acilada e caloeic, leptina, caloroc e restroction e sensações de fome e saciedade.
Responsible energy consumption de regressão linear com efeitos mistos efeitos swtiety e aleatórios ajudaram a avaliar as variáveis aatiety os dois grupos e dentro dos grupos.
Resyriction duas dietas não diferiram em termos de sensação de fome. Uma dieta rica em fibras restrixtion curto restrriction melhora aand sensações de saciedade e os parâmetros claoric, suprimindo a datiety acilada satietyy 60 minutos e caloric restriction and satiety o Weight management success stories energético de repouso.
Palavras-chave: Dieta rica em fibras; mulheres obesas; restrição calórica; ans reguladores do apetite; sensação de fome ajd saciedade. There satety many disagreements about diets for the treatment of obesity, calorkc the importance of calorci types of dietary Detoxification for drug detox for caaloric treatment daloric body weight restrictikn is Detoxification for drug detox 1 restriiction.
Detoxification for drug detox Thermogenic energy boosting drinks, Quigley KM, Wadden TA.
Dietary interventions Detoxification for drug detox obesity: Hypertension and vision problems and mechanistic findings.
J Clin Invest. Rwstriction restriction is the main point of weight reduction treatment. Trepanowski JF, Canale RE, Marshall KE, Kabir MM, Bloomer RJ. Impact of caloric and dietary restriction regimens on markers of health resrriction longevity in humans and animals: nad summary festriction available findings.
Nutr Sattiety. doi: Dietary restriction can result in weight loss and offers metabolic benefits 3 reatriction. Triffoni-Melo AT, Dick-de-Paula Satiefy, Portari GV, Jordao AA, Garcia Chiarello P, Restrictkon RW. Short-term Minimizing cellulite appearance diet for weight loss in severely obese women.
Obes Surg. reetriction the short term. However, weight loss maintenance is difficult to achieve in the ccaloric term, possibly because the lower weight makes the organism caloric restriction and satiety to eatiety mechanisms that increase the food intake and Weight loss strategies the calric expenditure 4 4.
Sacks FM, Detoxification for drug detox Snake envenomation management, Carey VJ, Smith SR, Ryan DH, Anton SD, Reliable al. Comparison of weight-loss diets with different andd of fat, protein, and carbohydrates.
Caloeic Engl J Med. Indeed, the majority of people on weight loss programs have difficulty modifying their lifestyle and food intake habits.
Hunger and the desire to consume the usual food may culminate in individuals returning to the food pattern that they used to adopt before the caloric restriction 5 5. Maclean PS, Bergouignan A, Cornier MA, Jackman MR. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol.
Ghrelin, an orexigenic hormone, is implicated in both mealtime hunger and long-term body weight regulation 6 6. Wren AM, Small CJ, Abbott CR, Dhillo WS, Seal LJ, Cohen MA, et al. Ghrelin causes hyperphagia and obesity in rats.
Wren AM, Seal LJ, Cohen MA, Brynes AE, Frost GS, Murphy KG, et al. Ghrelin enhances appetite and increases food intake in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. Plasma ghrelin levels increase in response to diet-induced weight loss, suggesting that ghrelin participates in an adaptive response that limits the weight loss achieved through dieting.
On the other hand, leptin constitutes one of the anorectic messengers to the central nervous system and circulates at concentrations proportional to the fat mass, thereby inhibiting food intake. Lower ghrelin and higher leptin levels occur in obese people 8 8.
Shiiya T, Nakazato M, Mizuta M, Date Y, Mondal MS, Tanaka M, et al. Plasma ghrelin levels in lean and obese humans and the effect of glucose on ghrelin secretion.
Ghrelin, obesity and diabetes. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. Hunger and low compliance with the diet limit weight loss during dietary changes 4 4. Individuals who undertake a weight loss program perceive hunger associated with caloric restriction as a negative point 10 Blair-West GW.
Tantalus, restraint theory, and the low-sacrifice diet: the art of reverse abstraction - 10th International Congress on Obesity; September 4, ; Sydney, Australia - Symposium: obesity management: adding art to the science, invited presentation.
Med Gen Med. In contrast, programs that demand less restrictive sacrifice can mitigate such effects 11 Golay A. Dietary and body weight control: therapeutic education, motivational interviewing and cognitive-behavioral approaches for long-term weight loss maintenance.
Nestle Nutr Workshop Ser Clin Perform Programme. Therefore, nutritional strategies that aim to increase satiety; for example, programs that adopt a high-fiber diet, can lead to more satisfactory results 12 Dreher ML, Ford NA.
A Comprehensive Critical Assessment of Increased Fruit and Vegetable Intake on Weight Loss in Women. Gilhooly CH, Das SK, Golden JK, McCrory MA, Rochon J, DeLany JP, et al. Use of cereal fiber to facilitate adherence to a human caloric restriction program.
Aging Clin Exp Res. This study aimed to evaluate how hormones that regulate the appetite, metabolism, hunger, and satiety sensations change in obese women on a short-term caloric restriction based on a high-fiber diet as compared with obese women on a conventional restrictive diet. This randomized controlled trial study was conducted after approval by the Research Ethics Committee of the University Hospital of Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo.
All the participants signed the written informed consent form. The experimental protocol lasted four days. The high-fiber diet was prepared using the typical menu offered by the hospital added with 24 g of high-fiber foods, such as whole grain bread, linseed, tangerine, pectin, brown rice, wheat bran, and apple.
The CG conventional diet relied on refined grains like white rice and white bread. Both diets were fractionated into six daily meals.
Body weight, BMI, body composition fat mass, fat-free mass, and body fat percentageresting energy expenditure, fasting glucose, basal insulin, HOMA-IR Homeostasis Model Assessment-Insulin Resistancebasal leptin, and basal and postprandial 30 and 60 min after breakfast acylated and total ghrelin were evaluated on the first day day 1 and after three days of caloric restriction day 4.
Hunger and satiety sensations were also assessed during the caloric restriction using visual analogue scales. To this end, the individuals wore light clothes but no shoes. An electronic platform scale Filizola® São Paulo, SP - Brazil with a capacity of kg and precision of 0.
The height was measured using a stadiometer accurate to 0. The BMI was calculated by dividing the body weight kilogram by the square of the height square meter. Fat mass and fat-free mass were determined by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry DXA, Hologic W, Bedford, MA, USA.
The calorimetric measurements were conducted on a portable calorimeter VO MedGraphics®, USA. Weir JB. New methods for calculating metabolic rate with special reference to protein metabolism.
J Physiol. Basal insulin was measured by chemiluminescence IMMULITE® Immunoassay System, Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics. Insulin resistance was evaluated by HOMA-IR 15 Matthews DR, Hosker JP, Rudenski AS, Naylor BA, Treacher DF, Turner RC.
Homeostasis model assessment: insulin resistance and beta-cell function from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in man. Leptin and acylated and total ghrelin fasting and postprandial were assessed by means of commercial Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ELISA kits from Millipore Corporation Billerica, MA, USA; Cat.
EZHLSK, Cat. EZGRAK, and Cat. EZGRTK, respectively. During caloric restriction, hunger and satiety were evaluated four times a day, before hunger and after satiety breakfast, lunch, snack, and dinner.
To this end, the methodology adapted from Flint and colleagues 16 Flint A, Raben A, Blundell JE, Astrup A. Reproducibility, power and validity of visual analogue scales in assessment of appetite sensations in single test meal studies.
Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. as well as a subjective mm visual analogue scale VAS was used to score how subjects were feeling. The participants were asked the following questions: 1 How hungry are you feeling?
By this method, the results are presented as the mean and standard deviation of the score obtained for each day. Data are presented as the mean and standard deviation SD. Statistical analyses were accomplished using the SAS software version 9.
: Caloric restriction and satiety| Is Starvation Mode Real or Imaginary? A Critical Look | CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Fontana L, Klein S, Holloszy JO, Premachandra BN: Effect of long-term calorie restriction with adequate protein and micronutrients on thyroid hormones. However, ghrelin and leptin signaling via the melanocortin system appears to improve energy balance signals and reduce hyperphagia following TRF, which has not been reported in CR. PubMed Google Scholar Fakhrzadeh H, Larijani B, Sanjari M, Baradar-Jalili R, Amini MR: Effect of Ramadan fasting on clinical and biochemical parameters in healthy adults. Many investigations have noted no significant difference between CE and CR regarding their respective effects on fasting insulin levels [ 64 ], DNA damage [ 61 ], muscle mitochondrial gene expression [ 61 ], triglyceride levels [ 67 ], and liver lipid content [ 66 ]. Reprints and permissions. |
| Publication types | Those who did not attend sessions underwent no change, whereas those exposed to between one and six sessions or between seven and 11 sessions experienced modest and significant improvements, respectively. Neither group experienced a significant decrease in systolic or diastolic blood pressure at 12 months, although those in the MyPlate group experienced a small decrease in systolic blood pressure at six months. Medical News Today spoke with Dr. Debbie Fetter , assistant professor of teaching nutrition at the University of California, Davis, who was not involved in the study, about when MyPlate-based interventions may be more practical than calorie-counting diets. If someone is using calorie counting to adjust their body composition, they could unknowingly be using flawed data. The type of protein also matters. The composition of our diets impacts the release of our gut hormones and impacts our gut microbiome. MNT asked Dr. Deepa Iyengar , professor of family medicine and obesity expert with McGovern Medical School at UTHealth Houston, not involved in the study, which patients may be better suited for MyPlate and calorie-cutting interventions. MNT also spoke with Dr. Felix Spiegel , a bariatric surgeon at Memorial Hermann in Houston, TX, who was not involved in the research, abut the study. People who are snackers and grazers and who rarely feel actual hunger sensation in their belly, are more suitable for calorie counting. Finkle told MNT that the study did not include details such as:. Participants were primarily female and Latinx. Spiegel noted that a key limitation is that after 12 months of intervention, neither group reported significant weight loss, and that waist circumference decreased very little. However, there needs to be much more structure and guidance in these programs. Using a foods-based approach can bring the nutrition concepts to life and provide realistic examples. Participants can have greater confidence in implementing the dietary changes e. She noted, however, that adjusting body composition and maintaining weight loss can be difficult, and that she always recommends consulting a doctor to figure out whether changes are necessary. Some meal delivery services have plans tailored for weight loss. Learn whether meal deliveries can help people lose weight successfully and more…. A commercial diet may help a person develop nutritious eating habits. Learn more here. Wait Watchers uses a point system to help people lose weight. Available worldwide, it offers a community, coaching, and etools to help you track…. Diet-to-Go is a meal delivery service that aims to help people lose weight. Here is an overview of how it works and some example menus. Researchers say bariatric surgery can help with weight loss, but it can also help improve cognitive functions including memory. My podcast changed me Can 'biological race' explain disparities in health? Why Parkinson's research is zooming in on the gut Tools General Health Drugs A-Z Health Hubs Health Tools Find a Doctor BMI Calculators and Charts Blood Pressure Chart: Ranges and Guide Breast Cancer: Self-Examination Guide Sleep Calculator Quizzes RA Myths vs Facts Type 2 Diabetes: Managing Blood Sugar Ankylosing Spondylitis Pain: Fact or Fiction Connect About Medical News Today Who We Are Our Editorial Process Content Integrity Conscious Language Newsletters Sign Up Follow Us. Medical News Today. Health Conditions Health Products Discover Tools Connect. Should dieters focus on feeling full after a meal, rather than calorie counting, for best results? By Annie Lennon on June 1, — Fact checked by Rita Ponce, Ph. Share on Pinterest What approach to dieting is best for sustainable weight loss? This question remains under debate. Calorie reduction vs. healthy eating. Advantages of MyPlate over calorie counting. Different diets may benefit different people. Min KJ, Flatt T, Kulaots I, Tatar M: Counting calories in Drosophila diet restriction. Exp Gerontol. PubMed Google Scholar. Comfort A: Effect of delayed and resumed growth on the longevity of a fish Lebistes reticulates, Peters in captivity. Google Scholar. Lawler DF, Larson BT, Ballam JM, Smith GK, Biery DN, Evans RH, Greeley EH, Segre M, Stowe HD, Kealy RD: Diet restriction and ageing in the dog: major observations over two decades. Br J Nutr. Imai S: SIRT1 and caloric restriction: an insight into possible trade-offs between robustness and frailty. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. Vaquero A, Reinberg D: Calorie restriction and the exercise of chromatin. Genes Dev. Vendelbo MH, Nair KS: Mitochondrial longevity pathways. Biochim Biophys Acta. Fadini GP, Ceolotto G, Pagnin E, de Kreutzenberg S, Avogaro A: At the crossroads of longevity and metabolism: the metabolic syndrome and lifespan determinant pathways. Aging Cell. Carrillo AE, Flouris AD: Caloric restriction and longevity: effects of reduced body temperature. Ageing Res Rev. Kyrylenko S, Baniahmad A: Sirtuin family: a link to metabolic signaling and senescence. Curr Med Chem. Smoliga JM, Baur JA, Hausenblas HA: Resveratrol and health - A comprehensive review of human clinical trials. Mol Nutr Food Res. Agarwal B, Baur JA: Resveratrol and life extension. Ann N Y Acad Sci. Chen T, Shen L, Yu J, Wan H, Guo A, Chen J, Long Y, Zhao J, Pei G: Rapamycin and other longevity-promoting compounds enhance the generation of mouse induced pluripotent stem cells. Varady KA, Hellerstein MK: Alternate-day fasting and chronic disease prevention: a review of human and animal trials. Am J Clin Nutr. Anson RM, Guo Z, de Cabo R, Iyun T, Rios M, Hagepanos A, Ingram DK, Lane MA, Mattson MP: Intermittent fasting dissociates beneficial effects of dietary restriction on glucose metabolism and neuronal resistance to injury from calorie intake. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. Abete P, Testa G, Galizia G, Mazzella F, Della Morte D, de Santis D, Calabrese C, Cacciatore F, Gargiulo G, Ferrara N, Rengo G, Sica V, Napoli C, Rengo F: Tandem action of exercise training and food restriction completely preserves ischemic preconditioning in the aging heart. Crandall DL, Feirer RP, Griffith DR, Beitz DC: Relative role of caloric restriction and exercise training upon susceptibility to isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in male rats. Kalani R, Judge S, Carter C, Pahor M, Leeuwenburgh C: Effects of caloric restriction and exercise on age-related, chronic inflammation assessed by C-reactive protein and interleukin J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. Deruisseau KC, Kavazis AN, Judge S, Murlasits Z, Deering MA, Quindry JC, Lee Y, Falk DJ, Leeuwenburgh C, Powers SK: Moderate caloric restriction increases diaphragmatic antioxidant enzyme mRNA, but not when combined with lifelong exercise. Antioxid Redox Signal. Holloszy JO: Mortality rate and longevity of food-restricted exercising male rats: a reevaluation. J Appl Physiol. Huffman DM, Moellering DR, Grizzle WE, Stockard CR, Johnson MS, Nagy TR: Effect of exercise and calorie restriction on biomarkers of aging in mice. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. Horska A, Brant LJ, Ingram DK, Hansford RG, Roth GS, Spencer RG: Effect of long-term caloric restriction and exercise on muscle bioenergetics and force development in rats. Am J Physiol. Iwasaki K, Gleiser CA, Masoro EJ, McMahan CA, Seo EJ, Yu BP: The influence of dietary protein source on longevity and age-related disease processes of Fischer rats. J Gerontol. Shimokawa I, Higami Y, Yu BP, Masoro EJ, Ikeda T: Influence of dietary components on occurrence of and mortality due to neoplasms in male F rats. Aging Milano. CAS Google Scholar. Khorakova M, Deil Z, Khausman D, Matsek K: Effect of carbohydrate-enriched diet and subsequent food restriction on life prolongation in Fischer male rats. Fiziol Zh. Kubo C, Johnson BC, Gajjar A, Good RA: Crucial dietary factors in maximizing life span and longevity in autoimmune-prone mice. J Nutr. Pamplona R, Barja G: Mitochondrial oxidative stress, aging and caloric restriction: the protein and methionine connection. Sanz A, Caro P, Sanchez JG, Barja G: Effect of lipid restriction on mitochondrial free radical production and oxidative DNA damage. Sanz A, Gomez J, Caro P, Barja G: Carbohydrate restriction does not change mitochondrial free radical generation and oxidative DNA damage. J Bioenerg Biomembr. Sarri KO, Higgins S, Kafatos AG: Are religions "healthy"? A review of religious recommendations on diet and lifestyle. Ecology, Culture, Nutrition, Health and Disease. Trepanowski JF, Bloomer RJ: The impact of religious fasting on human health. Nutr J. PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. Edwards IJ, Rudel LL, Terry JG, Kemnitz JW, Weindruch R, Cefalu WT: Caloric restriction in rhesus monkeys reduces low density lipoprotein interaction with arterial proteoglycans. Kayo T, Allison DB, Weindruch R, Prolla TA: Influences of aging and caloric restriction on the transcriptional profile of skeletal muscle from rhesus monkeys. Lane MA, Ball SS, Ingram DK, Cutler RG, Engel J, Read V, Roth GS: Diet restriction in rhesus monkeys lowers fasting and glucose-stimulated glucoregulatory end points. Lane MA, Ingram DK, Roth GS: Calorie restriction in nonhuman primates: effects on diabetes and cardiovascular disease risk. Toxicol Sci. Messaoudi I, Warner J, Fischer M, Park B, Hill B, Mattison J, Lane MA, Roth GS, Ingram DK, Picker LJ, Douek DC, Mori M, Nikolich-Zugich J: Delay of T cell senescence by caloric restriction in aged long-lived nonhuman primates. Zainal TA, Oberley TD, Allison DB, Szweda LI, Weindruch R: Caloric restriction of rhesus monkeys lowers oxidative damage in skeletal muscle. FASEB J. Hursting SD, Lavigne JA, Berrigan D, Perkins SN, Barrett JC: Calorie restriction, aging, and cancer prevention: mechanisms of action and applicability to humans. Annu Rev Med. Merry BJ: Molecular mechanisms linking calorie restriction and longevity. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. Jung KJ, Lee EK, Kim JY, Zou Y, Sung B, Heo HS, Kim MK, Lee J, Kim ND, Yu BP, Chung HY: Effect of short term calorie restriction on pro-inflammatory NF-kB and AP-1 in aged rat kidney. Inflamm Res. Dhahbi JM, Tsuchiya T, Kim HJ, Mote PL, Spindler SR: Gene expression and physiologic responses of the heart to the initiation and withdrawal of caloric restriction. Swoap SJ: Altered leptin signaling is sufficient, but not required, for hypotension associated with caloric restriction. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. Lee CK, Allison DB, Brand J, Weindruch R, Prolla TA: Transcriptional profiles associated with aging and middle age-onset caloric restriction in mouse hearts. Wang Z, Masternak MM, Al-Regaiey KA, Bartke A: Adipocytokines and the regulation of lipid metabolism in growth hormone transgenic and calorie-restricted mice. Bonkowski MS, Rocha JS, Masternak MM, Al Regaiey KA, Bartke A: Targeted disruption of growth hormone receptor interferes with the beneficial actions of calorie restriction. Okauchi N, Mizuno A, Yoshimoto S, Zhu M, Sano T, Shima K: Is caloric restriction effective in preventing diabetes mellitus in the Otsuka Long Evans Tokushima fatty rat, a model of spontaneous non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus?. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. Bevilacqua L, Ramsey JJ, Hagopian K, Weindruch R, Harper ME: Effects of short- and medium-term calorie restriction on muscle mitochondrial proton leak and reactive oxygen species production. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. Hagopian K, Harper ME, Ram JJ, Humble SJ, Weindruch R, Ramsey JJ: Long-term calorie restriction reduces proton leak and hydrogen peroxide production in liver mitochondria. Hyun DH, Emerson SS, Jo DG, Mattson MP, de Cabo R: Calorie restriction up-regulates the plasma membrane redox system in brain cells and suppresses oxidative stress during aging. Nandy K: Effects of controlled dietary restriction on brain-reactive antibodies in sera of aging mice. Mech Ageing Dev. Weindruch R, Walford RL, Fligiel S, Guthrie D: The retardation of aging in mice by dietary restriction: longevity, cancer, immunity and lifetime energy intake. Pitsikas N, Carli M, Fidecka S, Algeri S: Effect of life-long hypocaloric diet on age-related changes in motor and cognitive behavior in a rat population. Neurobiol Aging. Colman RJ, Beasley TM, Allison DB, Weindruch R: Attenuation of sarcopenia by dietary restriction in rhesus monkeys. Keenan KP, Ballam GC, Dixit R, Soper KA, Laroque P, Mattson BA, Adams SP, Coleman JB: The effects of diet, overfeeding and moderate dietary restriction on Sprague-Dawley rat survival, disease and toxicology. Pugh TD, Oberley TD, Weindruch R: Dietary intervention at middle age: caloric restriction but not dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate increases lifespan and lifetime cancer incidence in mice. Cancer Res. Civitarese AE, Carling S, Heilbronn LK, Hulver MH, Ukropcova B, Deutsch WA, Smith SR, Ravussin E, CALERIE Pennington Team: Calorie restriction increases muscle mitochondrial biogenesis in healthy humans. PLoS Med. Fontana L, Villareal DT, Weiss EP, Racette SB, Steger-May K, Klein S, Holloszy JO, the Washington University School of Medicine CALERIE Group: Calorie restriction or exercise: effects on coronary heart disease risk factors. A randomized, controlled trial. Fontana L, Weiss EP, Villareal DT, Klein S, Holloszy JO: Long-term effects of calorie or protein restriction on serum IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 concentration in humans. Heilbronn LK, de Jonge L, Frisard MI, DeLany JP, Larson-Meyer DE, Rood J, Nguyen T, Martin CK, Volaufova J, Most MM, Greenway FL, Smith SR, Deutsch WA, Williamson DA, Ravussin E, Pennington CALERIE Team: Effect of 6-month calorie restriction on biomarkers of longevity, metabolic adaptation, and oxidative stress in overweight individuals: a randomized controlled trial. Hofer T, Fontana L, Anton SD, Weiss EP, Villareal D, Malayappan B, Leeuwenburgh C: Long-term effects of caloric restriction or exercise on DNA and RNA oxidation levels in white blood cells and urine in humans. Rejuvenation Res. Larson-Meyer DE, Newcomer BR, Heilbronn LK, Volaufova J, Smith SR, Alfonso AJ, Lefevre M, Rood JC, Williamson DA, Ravussin E, Pennington CALERIE Team: Effect of 6-month calorie restriction and exercise on serum and liver lipids and markers of liver function. Obesity Silver Spring. Lefevre M, Redman LM, Heilbronn LK, Smith JV, Martin CK, Rood JC, Greenway FL, Williamson DA, Smith SR, Ravussin E, Pennington CALERIE team: Caloric restriction alone and with exercise improves CVD risk in healthy non-obese individuals. Redman LM, Veldhuis JD, Rood J, Smith SR, Williamson D, Ravussin E, for the Pennington CALERIE Team: The effect of caloric restriction interventions on growth hormone secretion in non-obese men and women. Villareal DT, Fontana L, Weiss EP, Racette SB, Steger-May K, Schechtman KB, Klein S, Holloszy JO: Bone mineral density response to caloric restriction-induced weight loss or exercise-induced weight loss: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern Med. Weiss EP, Racette SB, Villareal DT, Fontana L, Steger-May K, Schechtman KB, Klein S, Holloszy JO, Washington University School of Medicine CALERIE Group: Improvements in glucose tolerance and insulin action induced by increasing energy expenditure or decreasing energy intake: a randomized controlled trial. Weiss EP, Racette SB, Villareal DT, Fontana L, Steger-May K, Schechtman KB, Klein S, Ehsani AA, Holloszy JO, Washington University School of Medicine CALERIE Group: Lower extremity muscle size and strength and aerobic capacity decrease with caloric restriction but not with exercise-induced weight loss. Verdery RB, Walford RL: Changes in plasma lipids and lipoproteins in humans during a 2-year period of dietary restriction in Biosphere 2. Walford RL, Mock D, MacCallum T, Laseter JL: Physiologic changes in humans subjected to severe, selective calorie restriction for two years in biosphere 2: health, aging, and toxicological perspectives. Walford RL, Mock D, Verdery R, MacCallum T: Calorie restriction in biosphere 2: alterations in physiologic, hematologic, hormonal, and biochemical parameters in humans restricted for a 2-year period. Fontana L, Meyer TE, Klein S, Holloszy JO: Long-term calorie restriction is highly effective in reducing the risk for atherosclerosis in humans. Fontana L, Klein S, Holloszy JO, Premachandra BN: Effect of long-term calorie restriction with adequate protein and micronutrients on thyroid hormones. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. Meyer TE, Kovacs SJ, Ehsani AA, Klein S, Holloszy JO, Fontana L: Long-term caloric restriction ameliorates the decline in diastolic function in humans. J Am Coll Cardiol. Willcox BJ, Willcox DC, Todoriki H, Fujiyoshi A, Yano K, He Q, Curb JD, Suzuki M: Caloric restriction, the traditional Okinawan diet, and healthy aging: the diet of the world's longest-lived people and its potential impact on morbidity and life span. Holloszy JO, Fontana L: Caloric restriction in humans. Crujeiras AB, Parra D, Abete I, Martinez JA: A hypocaloric diet enriched in legumes specifically mitigates lipid peroxidation in obese subjects. Free Radic Res. Crujeiras AB, Parra D, Goyenechea E, Abete I, Martinez JA: Tachyphylaxis effects on postprandial oxidative stress and mitochondrial-related gene expression in overweight subjects after a period of energy restriction. Eur J Nutr. Dandona P, Mohanty P, Ghanim H, Aljada A, Browne R, Hamouda W, Prabhala A, Afzal A, Garg R: The suppressive effect of dietary restriction and weight loss in the obese on the generation of reactive oxygen species by leukocytes, lipid peroxidation, and protein carbonylation. Skrha J, Kunesova M, Hilgertova J, Weiserova H, Krizova J, Kotrlikova E: Short-term very low calorie diet reduces oxidative stress in obese type 2 diabetic patients. Physiol Res. Galassetti PR, Nemet D, Pescatello A, Rose-Gottron C, Larson J, Cooper DM: Exercise, caloric restriction, and systemic oxidative stress. J Investig Med. Veldhuis JD, Iranmanesh A, Evans WS, Lizarralde G, Thorner MO, Vance ML: Amplitude suppression of the pulsatile mode of immunoradiometric luteinizing hormone release in fasting-induced hypoandrogenemia in normal men. Witte AV, Fobker M, Gellner R, Knecht S, Floel A: Caloric restriction improves memory in elderly humans. Dandona P, Mohanty P, Hamouda W, Ghanim H, Aljada A, Garg R, Kumar V: Inhibitory effect of a two day fast on reactive oxygen species ROS generation by leucocytes and plasma ortho-tyrosine and meta-tyrosine concentrations. Dalle-Donne I, Rossi R, Colombo R, Giustarini D, Milzani A: Biomarkers of oxidative damage in human disease. Clin Chem. Larson-Meyer DE, Redman L, Heilbronn LK, Martin CK, Ravussin E: Caloric restriction with or without exercise: the fitness versus fatness debate. Med Sci Sports Exerc. Silverman NE, Nicklas BJ, Ryan AS: Addition of aerobic exercise to a weight loss program increases BMD, with an associated reduction in inflammation in overweight postmenopausal women. Calcif Tissue Int. Yassine HN, Marchetti CM, Krishnan RK, Vrobel TR, Gonzalez F, Kirwan JP: Effects of exercise and caloric restriction on insulin resistance and cardiometabolic risk factors in older obese adults--a randomized clinical trial. Varady KA, Roohk DJ, Loe YC, McEvoy-Hein BK, Hellerstein MK: Effects of modified alternate-day fasting regimens on adipocyte size, triglyceride metabolism, and plasma adiponectin levels in mice. J Lipid Res. Descamps O, Riondel J, Ducros V, Roussel AM: Mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species and incidence of age-associated lymphoma in OF1 mice: effect of alternate-day fasting. Duan W, Guo Z, Jiang H, Ware M, Mattson MP: Reversal of behavioral and metabolic abnormalities, and insulin resistance syndrome, by dietary restriction in mice deficient in brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Ahmet I, Wan R, Mattson MP, Lakatta EG, Talan M: Cardioprotection by intermittent fasting in rats. Mager DE, Wan R, Brown M, Cheng A, Wareski P, Abernethy DR, Mattson MP: Caloric restriction and intermittent fasting alter spectral measures of heart rate and blood pressure variability in rats. Pedersen CR, Hagemann I, Bock T, Buschard K: Intermittent feeding and fasting reduces diabetes incidence in BB rats. Tikoo K, Tripathi DN, Kabra DG, Sharma V, Gaikwad AB: Intermittent fasting prevents the progression of type I diabetic nephropathy in rats and changes the expression of Sir2 and p FEBS Lett. Wan R, Camandola S, Mattson MP: Intermittent fasting and dietary supplementation with 2-deoxy-D-glucose improve functional and metabolic cardiovascular risk factors in rats. Mattson MP, Wan R: Beneficial effects of intermittent fasting and caloric restriction on the cardiovascular and cerebrovascular systems. J Nutr Biochem. Heilbronn LK, Smith SR, Martin CK, Anton SD, Ravussin E: Alternate-day fasting in nonobese subjects: effects on body weight, body composition, and energy metabolism. Johnson JB, Laub DR, John S: The effect on health of alternate day calorie restriction: eating less and more than needed on alternate days prolongs life. Med Hypotheses. Heilbronn LK, Civitarese AE, Bogacka I, Smith SR, Hulver M, Ravussin E: Glucose tolerance and skeletal muscle gene expression in response to alternate day fasting. Obes Res. Halberg N, Henriksen M, Soderhamn N, Stallknecht B, Ploug T, Schjerling P, Dela F: Effect of intermittent fasting and refeeding on insulin action in healthy men. Johnson JB, Summer W, Cutler RG, Martin B, Hyun DH, Dixit VD, Pearson M, Nassar M, Telljohann R, Maudsley S, Carlson O, John S, Laub DR, Mattson MP: Alternate day calorie restriction improves clinical findings and reduces markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in overweight adults with moderate asthma. Free Radic Biol Med. Hubert MF, Laroque P, Gillet JP, Keenan KP: The effects of diet, ad Libitum feeding, and moderate and severe dietary restriction on body weight, survival, clinical pathology parameters, and cause of death in control Sprague-Dawley rats. Djuric Z, Lewis SM, Lu MH, Mayhugh M, Naegeli L, Tang N, Hart RW: Effect of varying caloric restriction levels on female rat growth and 5-hydroxymethyl-2'-deoxyuridine in DNA. Simpson SJ, Raubenheimer D: Caloric restriction and aging revisited: the need for a geometric analysis of the nutritional bases of aging. Segall PE, Timiras PS: Patho-physiologic findings after chronic tryptophan deficiency in rats: a model for delayed growth and aging. Ooka H, Segall PE, Timiras PS: Histology and survival in age-delayed low-tryptophan-fed rats. Miller RA, Buehner G, Chang Y, Harper JM, Sigler R, Smith-Wheelock M: Methionine-deficient diet extends mouse lifespan, slows immune and lens aging, alters glucose, T4, IGF-I and insulin levels, and increases hepatocyte MIF levels and stress resistance. Orentreich N, Matias JR, DeFelice A, Zimmerman JA: Low methionine ingestion by rats extends life span. Richie JP, Leutzinger Y, Parthasarathy S, Malloy V, Orentreich N, Zimmerman JA: Methionine restriction increases blood glutathione and longevity in F rats. Richie JP, Komninou D, Leutzinger Y, Kleinman W, Orentreich N, Malloy V, Zimmerman JA: Tissue glutathione and cysteine levels in methionine-restricted rats. Zimmerman JA, Malloy V, Krajcik R, Orentreich N: Nutritional control of aging. Sanz A, Caro P, Ayala V, Portero-Otin M, Pamplona R, Barja G: Methionine restriction decreases mitochondrial oxygen radical generation and leak as well as oxidative damage to mitochondrial DNA and proteins. Caro P, Gomez J, Lopez-Torres M, Sanchez I, Naudi A, Jove M, Pamplona R, Barja G: Forty percent and eighty percent methionine restriction decrease mitochondrial ROS generation and oxidative stress in rat liver. Naudi A, Caro P, Jove M, Gomez J, Boada J, Ayala V, Portero-Otin M, Barja G, Pamplona R: Methionine restriction decreases endogenous oxidative molecular damage and increases mitochondrial biogenesis and uncoupling protein 4 in rat brain. Ruiz MC, Ayala V, Portero-Otin M, Requena JR, Barja G, Pamplona R: Protein methionine content and MDA-lysine adducts are inversely related to maximum life span in the heart of mammals. Moskovitz J, Bar-Noy S, Williams WM, Requena J, Berlett BS, Stadtman ER: Methionine sulfoxide reductase MsrA is a regulator of antioxidant defense and lifespan in mammals. Hidiroglou N, Gilani GS, Long L, Zhao X, Madere R, Cockell K, Belonge B, Ratnayake WM, Peace R: The influence of dietary vitamin E, fat, and methionine on blood cholesterol profile, homocysteine levels, and oxidizability of low density lipoprotein in the gerbil. McCarty MF, Barroso-Aranda J, Contreras F: The low-methionine content of vegan diets may make methionine restriction feasible as a life extension strategy. Ibrahim WH, Habib HM, Jarrar AH, Al Baz SA: Effect of Ramadan fasting on markers of oxidative stress and serum biochemical markers of cellular damage in healthy subjects. Ann Nutr Metab. Hallak MH, Nomani MZ: Body weight loss and changes in blood lipid levels in normal men on hypocaloric diets during Ramadan fasting. Lamine F, Bouguerra R, Jabrane J, Marrakchi Z, Ben Rayana MC, Ben Slama C, Gaigi S: Food intake and high density lipoprotein cholesterol levels changes during ramadan fasting in healthy young subjects. Tunis Med. el Ati J, Beji C, Danguir J: Increased fat oxidation during Ramadan fasting in healthy women: an adaptative mechanism for body-weight maintenance. Maislos M, Khamaysi N, Assali A, Abou-Rabiah Y, Zvili I, Shany S: Marked increase in plasma high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol after prolonged fasting during Ramadan. Ziaee V, Razaei M, Ahmadinejad Z, Shaikh H, Yousefi R, Yarmohammadi L, Bozorgi F, Behjati MJ: The changes of metabolic profile and weight during Ramadan fasting. Singapore Med J. Aksungar FB, Eren A, Ure S, Teskin O, Ates G: Effects of intermittent fasting on serum lipid levels, coagulation status and plasma homocysteine levels. Aksungar FB, Topkaya AE, Akyildiz M: Interleukin-6, C-reactive protein and biochemical parameters during prolonged intermittent fasting. Lamri-Senhadji MY, El Kebir B, Belleville J, Bouchenak M: Assessment of dietary consumption and time-course of changes in serum lipids and lipoproteins before, during and after Ramadan in young Algerian adults. Salehi M, Neghab M: Effects of fasting and a medium calorie balanced diet during the holy month Ramadan on weight, BMI and some blood parameters of overweight males. Pak J Biol Sci. Husain R, Duncan MT, Cheah SH, Ch'ng SL: Effects of fasting in Ramadan on tropical Asiatic Moslems. Ramadan J, Telahoun G, Al-Zaid NS, Barac-Nieto M: Responses to exercise, fluid, and energy balances during Ramadan in sedentary and active males. Ramadan J: Does fasting during Ramadan alter body composition, blood constituents and physical performance?. Med Princ Pract. Sarraf-Zadegan N, Atashi M, Naderi GA, Baghai AM, Asgary S, Fatehifar MR, Samarian H, Zarei M: The effect of fasting in Ramadan on the values and interrelations between biochemical, coagulation and hematological factors. Ann Saudi Med. Chamsi-Pasha H, Ahmed WH: The effect of fasting in Ramadan on patients with heart disease. Saudi Med J. Fakhrzadeh H, Larijani B, Sanjari M, Baradar-Jalili R, Amini MR: Effect of Ramadan fasting on clinical and biochemical parameters in healthy adults. Perk G, Ghanem J, Aamar S, Ben-Ishay D, Bursztyn M: The effect of the fast of Ramadan on ambulatory blood pressure in treated hypertensives. J Hum Hypertens. Chaouachi A, Coutts AJ, Wong del P, Roky R, Mbazaa A, Amri M, Chamari K: Haematological, inflammatory, and immunological responses in elite judo athletes maintaining high training loads during Ramadan. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. Kassab SE, Abdul-Ghaffar T, Nagalla DS, Sachdeva U, Nayar U: Serum leptin and insulin levels during chronic diurnal fasting. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. Roky R, Iraki L, HajKhlifa R, Lakhdar Ghazal N, Hakkou F: Daytime alertness, mood, psychomotor performances, and oral temperature during Ramadan intermittent fasting. Roky R, Chapotot F, Benchekroun MT, Benaji B, Hakkou F, Elkhalifi H, Buguet A: Daytime sleepiness during Ramadan intermittent fasting: polysomnographic and quantitative waking EEG study. J Sleep Res. Afifi ZE: Daily practices, study performance and health during the Ramadan fast. J R Soc Health. Kadri N, Tilane A, El Batal M, Taltit Y, Tahiri SM, Moussaoui D: Irritability during the month of Ramadan. Psychosom Med. Iraki L, Bogdan A, Hakkou F, Amrani N, Abkari A, Touitou Y: Ramadan diet restrictions modify the circadian time structure in humans. A study on plasma gastrin, insulin, glucose, and calcium and on gastric pH. Leiper JB, Molla AM, Molla AM: Effects on health of fluid restriction during fasting in Ramadan. Eur J Clin Nutr. Meckel Y, Ismaeel A, Eliakim A: The effect of the Ramadan fast on physical performance and dietary habits in adolescent soccer players. Eur J Appl Physiol. Bogdan A, Bouchareb B, Touitou Y: Ramadan fasting alters endocrine and neuroendocrine circadian patterns. Meal-time as a synchronizer in humans?. Life Sci. Haghdoost AA, Poorranjbar M: The interaction between physical activity and fasting on the serum lipid profile during Ramadan. Papadaki A, Vardavas C, Hatzis C, Kafatos A: Calcium, nutrient and food intake of Greek Orthodox Christian monks during a fasting and non-fasting week. Public Health Nutr. Sarri KO, Tzanakis NE, Linardakis MK, Mamalakis GD, Kafatos AG: Effects of Greek Orthodox Christian Church fasting on serum lipids and obesity. BMC Public Health. Sarri KO, Linardakis MK, Bervanaki FN, Tzanakis NE, Kafatos AG: Greek Orthodox fasting rituals: a hidden characteristic of the Mediterranean diet of Crete. Sarri KO, Kafatos AG, Higgins S: Is religious fasting related to iron status in Greek Orthodox Christians?. Sarri K, Linardakis M, Codrington C, Kafatos A: Does the periodic vegetarianism of Greek Orthodox Christians benefit blood pressure?. Prev Med. Dwyer JT: Health aspects of vegetarian diets. Key TJ, Appleby PN, Rosell MS: Health effects of vegetarian and vegan diets. Proc Nutr Soc. Bloomer RJ, Kabir MM, Canale RE, Trepanowski JF, Marshall KE, Farney TM, Hammond KG: Effect of a 21 day Daniel Fast on metabolic and cardiovascular disease risk factors in men and women. Lipids Health Dis. Bloomer RJ, Kabir MM, Trepanowski JF, Canale RE, Farney TM: A 21 day Daniel Fast improves selected biomarkers of antioxidant status and oxidative stress in men and women. Nutr Metab Lond. Download references. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Richard J Bloomer. JFT, REC, KEM, MMK, and RJB were all involved in the review of relevant literature pertaining to this topic and in the writing and editing of this manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Open Access This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. Reprints and permissions. Trepanowski, J. et al. Impact of caloric and dietary restriction regimens on markers of health and longevity in humans and animals: a summary of available findings. Nutr J 10 , Download citation. Received : 23 June Accepted : 07 October Published : 07 October Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Skip to main content. Search all BMC articles Search. Download PDF. Download ePub. Abstract Considerable interest has been shown in the ability of caloric restriction CR to improve multiple parameters of health and to extend lifespan. Introduction Since the seminal work of McCay et al. Caloric Restriction and Animals Rodents and primates are the two most commonly studied species in CR animal trials. Caloric Restriction and Humans It is difficult to definitively answer whether or not CR prolongs human life because of the ethical and logistical limitations of research design. Caloric Restriction combined with Exercise Animals A number of studies have examined whether the addition of exercise to a CR regimen CE augments any of the health-promoting benefits caused by CR alone. Humans Several CE studies have involved human subjects [ 61 , 64 , 66 , 67 , 84 , 89 — 91 ]. Alternate-Day Fasting and Animals ADF consists of alternating hour periods of ad libitum intake "feast period" and partial or complete restriction of caloric consumption "fast period". Alternate-Day Fasting and Humans Of the ADF trials that have been performed, relatively few have used human subjects. Religious Fasting Several religions place one or more of the following restrictions on food consumption: 1 the types of foods permitted for consumption in general or during particular times of the year; 2 the time of day when food consumption is permitted; and 3 food preparation [ 34 ]. Ramadan During the holy month of Ramadan, all healthy adult Muslims are forbidden from consuming any food or water from sunrise Sahur to sunset Iftar. Greek Orthodox There are three principal fasting periods for Greek Orthodox Christians. Daniel Fast A popular fast practiced by many Christians and Jews is the Daniel Fast, based on the Biblical story of Daniel , in which Daniel resolved not to defile himself with the royal food and wine, and he asked the chief official for permission to provide to him and his three friends nothing but vegetables to eat and water to drink for 10 days. Overall Summary and Conclusions CR has been demonstrated to extend the maximal lifespan of a diverse group of species. Abbreviations ADF: alternate-day fasting ASUI: Asthma Symptom Utility Index BDNF: brain-derived neurotrophic factor CALERIE: Comprehensive Assessment of Long Term Effects of Reducing Caloric Intake CE: caloric restriction combined with exercise CR: caloric restriction DR: dietary restriction FEV 1 : forced expiratory volume HDL: high density lipoprotein LDL: low density lipoprotein MDA: malondialdehyde MI: myocardial infarction mini-AQLQ: mini-Asthma Quality of Life Questionnaire PEF: Peak Expiratory Flow. References McCay CM, Crowell MF, Maynard LA: The effect of retarded growth upon the length of life span and upon the ultimate body size. discussion CAS PubMed Google Scholar Canto C, Auwerx J: Caloric restriction, SIRT1 and longevity. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Min KJ, Flatt T, Kulaots I, Tatar M: Counting calories in Drosophila diet restriction. PubMed Google Scholar Comfort A: Effect of delayed and resumed growth on the longevity of a fish Lebistes reticulates, Peters in captivity. Google Scholar Lawler DF, Larson BT, Ballam JM, Smith GK, Biery DN, Evans RH, Greeley EH, Segre M, Stowe HD, Kealy RD: Diet restriction and ageing in the dog: major observations over two decades. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Imai S: SIRT1 and caloric restriction: an insight into possible trade-offs between robustness and frailty. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Vaquero A, Reinberg D: Calorie restriction and the exercise of chromatin. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Vendelbo MH, Nair KS: Mitochondrial longevity pathways. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Fadini GP, Ceolotto G, Pagnin E, de Kreutzenberg S, Avogaro A: At the crossroads of longevity and metabolism: the metabolic syndrome and lifespan determinant pathways. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Carrillo AE, Flouris AD: Caloric restriction and longevity: effects of reduced body temperature. PubMed Google Scholar Kyrylenko S, Baniahmad A: Sirtuin family: a link to metabolic signaling and senescence. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Smoliga JM, Baur JA, Hausenblas HA: Resveratrol and health - A comprehensive review of human clinical trials. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Agarwal B, Baur JA: Resveratrol and life extension. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Chen T, Shen L, Yu J, Wan H, Guo A, Chen J, Long Y, Zhao J, Pei G: Rapamycin and other longevity-promoting compounds enhance the generation of mouse induced pluripotent stem cells. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Varady KA, Hellerstein MK: Alternate-day fasting and chronic disease prevention: a review of human and animal trials. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Anson RM, Guo Z, de Cabo R, Iyun T, Rios M, Hagepanos A, Ingram DK, Lane MA, Mattson MP: Intermittent fasting dissociates beneficial effects of dietary restriction on glucose metabolism and neuronal resistance to injury from calorie intake. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Abete P, Testa G, Galizia G, Mazzella F, Della Morte D, de Santis D, Calabrese C, Cacciatore F, Gargiulo G, Ferrara N, Rengo G, Sica V, Napoli C, Rengo F: Tandem action of exercise training and food restriction completely preserves ischemic preconditioning in the aging heart. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Crandall DL, Feirer RP, Griffith DR, Beitz DC: Relative role of caloric restriction and exercise training upon susceptibility to isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in male rats. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Kalani R, Judge S, Carter C, Pahor M, Leeuwenburgh C: Effects of caloric restriction and exercise on age-related, chronic inflammation assessed by C-reactive protein and interleukin CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Deruisseau KC, Kavazis AN, Judge S, Murlasits Z, Deering MA, Quindry JC, Lee Y, Falk DJ, Leeuwenburgh C, Powers SK: Moderate caloric restriction increases diaphragmatic antioxidant enzyme mRNA, but not when combined with lifelong exercise. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Holloszy JO: Mortality rate and longevity of food-restricted exercising male rats: a reevaluation. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Huffman DM, Moellering DR, Grizzle WE, Stockard CR, Johnson MS, Nagy TR: Effect of exercise and calorie restriction on biomarkers of aging in mice. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Horska A, Brant LJ, Ingram DK, Hansford RG, Roth GS, Spencer RG: Effect of long-term caloric restriction and exercise on muscle bioenergetics and force development in rats. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Iwasaki K, Gleiser CA, Masoro EJ, McMahan CA, Seo EJ, Yu BP: The influence of dietary protein source on longevity and age-related disease processes of Fischer rats. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Shimokawa I, Higami Y, Yu BP, Masoro EJ, Ikeda T: Influence of dietary components on occurrence of and mortality due to neoplasms in male F rats. CAS Google Scholar Khorakova M, Deil Z, Khausman D, Matsek K: Effect of carbohydrate-enriched diet and subsequent food restriction on life prolongation in Fischer male rats. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Kubo C, Johnson BC, Gajjar A, Good RA: Crucial dietary factors in maximizing life span and longevity in autoimmune-prone mice. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Pamplona R, Barja G: Mitochondrial oxidative stress, aging and caloric restriction: the protein and methionine connection. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Sanz A, Caro P, Sanchez JG, Barja G: Effect of lipid restriction on mitochondrial free radical production and oxidative DNA damage. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Sanz A, Gomez J, Caro P, Barja G: Carbohydrate restriction does not change mitochondrial free radical generation and oxidative DNA damage. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Sarri KO, Higgins S, Kafatos AG: Are religions "healthy"? Google Scholar Trepanowski JF, Bloomer RJ: The impact of religious fasting on human health. PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Edwards IJ, Rudel LL, Terry JG, Kemnitz JW, Weindruch R, Cefalu WT: Caloric restriction in rhesus monkeys reduces low density lipoprotein interaction with arterial proteoglycans. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Kayo T, Allison DB, Weindruch R, Prolla TA: Influences of aging and caloric restriction on the transcriptional profile of skeletal muscle from rhesus monkeys. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Lane MA, Ball SS, Ingram DK, Cutler RG, Engel J, Read V, Roth GS: Diet restriction in rhesus monkeys lowers fasting and glucose-stimulated glucoregulatory end points. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Lane MA, Ingram DK, Roth GS: Calorie restriction in nonhuman primates: effects on diabetes and cardiovascular disease risk. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Messaoudi I, Warner J, Fischer M, Park B, Hill B, Mattison J, Lane MA, Roth GS, Ingram DK, Picker LJ, Douek DC, Mori M, Nikolich-Zugich J: Delay of T cell senescence by caloric restriction in aged long-lived nonhuman primates. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Zainal TA, Oberley TD, Allison DB, Szweda LI, Weindruch R: Caloric restriction of rhesus monkeys lowers oxidative damage in skeletal muscle. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Hursting SD, Lavigne JA, Berrigan D, Perkins SN, Barrett JC: Calorie restriction, aging, and cancer prevention: mechanisms of action and applicability to humans. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Merry BJ: Molecular mechanisms linking calorie restriction and longevity. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Jung KJ, Lee EK, Kim JY, Zou Y, Sung B, Heo HS, Kim MK, Lee J, Kim ND, Yu BP, Chung HY: Effect of short term calorie restriction on pro-inflammatory NF-kB and AP-1 in aged rat kidney. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Dhahbi JM, Tsuchiya T, Kim HJ, Mote PL, Spindler SR: Gene expression and physiologic responses of the heart to the initiation and withdrawal of caloric restriction. PubMed Google Scholar Swoap SJ: Altered leptin signaling is sufficient, but not required, for hypotension associated with caloric restriction. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Lee CK, Allison DB, Brand J, Weindruch R, Prolla TA: Transcriptional profiles associated with aging and middle age-onset caloric restriction in mouse hearts. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Wang Z, Masternak MM, Al-Regaiey KA, Bartke A: Adipocytokines and the regulation of lipid metabolism in growth hormone transgenic and calorie-restricted mice. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Bonkowski MS, Rocha JS, Masternak MM, Al Regaiey KA, Bartke A: Targeted disruption of growth hormone receptor interferes with the beneficial actions of calorie restriction. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Okauchi N, Mizuno A, Yoshimoto S, Zhu M, Sano T, Shima K: Is caloric restriction effective in preventing diabetes mellitus in the Otsuka Long Evans Tokushima fatty rat, a model of spontaneous non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus?. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Bevilacqua L, Ramsey JJ, Hagopian K, Weindruch R, Harper ME: Effects of short- and medium-term calorie restriction on muscle mitochondrial proton leak and reactive oxygen species production. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Hagopian K, Harper ME, Ram JJ, Humble SJ, Weindruch R, Ramsey JJ: Long-term calorie restriction reduces proton leak and hydrogen peroxide production in liver mitochondria. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Hyun DH, Emerson SS, Jo DG, Mattson MP, de Cabo R: Calorie restriction up-regulates the plasma membrane redox system in brain cells and suppresses oxidative stress during aging. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Nandy K: Effects of controlled dietary restriction on brain-reactive antibodies in sera of aging mice. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Weindruch R, Walford RL, Fligiel S, Guthrie D: The retardation of aging in mice by dietary restriction: longevity, cancer, immunity and lifetime energy intake. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Pitsikas N, Carli M, Fidecka S, Algeri S: Effect of life-long hypocaloric diet on age-related changes in motor and cognitive behavior in a rat population. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Colman RJ, Beasley TM, Allison DB, Weindruch R: Attenuation of sarcopenia by dietary restriction in rhesus monkeys. PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Keenan KP, Ballam GC, Dixit R, Soper KA, Laroque P, Mattson BA, Adams SP, Coleman JB: The effects of diet, overfeeding and moderate dietary restriction on Sprague-Dawley rat survival, disease and toxicology. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Pugh TD, Oberley TD, Weindruch R: Dietary intervention at middle age: caloric restriction but not dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate increases lifespan and lifetime cancer incidence in mice. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Civitarese AE, Carling S, Heilbronn LK, Hulver MH, Ukropcova B, Deutsch WA, Smith SR, Ravussin E, CALERIE Pennington Team: Calorie restriction increases muscle mitochondrial biogenesis in healthy humans. PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Fontana L, Villareal DT, Weiss EP, Racette SB, Steger-May K, Klein S, Holloszy JO, the Washington University School of Medicine CALERIE Group: Calorie restriction or exercise: effects on coronary heart disease risk factors. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Fontana L, Weiss EP, Villareal DT, Klein S, Holloszy JO: Long-term effects of calorie or protein restriction on serum IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 concentration in humans. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Heilbronn LK, de Jonge L, Frisard MI, DeLany JP, Larson-Meyer DE, Rood J, Nguyen T, Martin CK, Volaufova J, Most MM, Greenway FL, Smith SR, Deutsch WA, Williamson DA, Ravussin E, Pennington CALERIE Team: Effect of 6-month calorie restriction on biomarkers of longevity, metabolic adaptation, and oxidative stress in overweight individuals: a randomized controlled trial. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Hofer T, Fontana L, Anton SD, Weiss EP, Villareal D, Malayappan B, Leeuwenburgh C: Long-term effects of caloric restriction or exercise on DNA and RNA oxidation levels in white blood cells and urine in humans. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Larson-Meyer DE, Newcomer BR, Heilbronn LK, Volaufova J, Smith SR, Alfonso AJ, Lefevre M, Rood JC, Williamson DA, Ravussin E, Pennington CALERIE Team: Effect of 6-month calorie restriction and exercise on serum and liver lipids and markers of liver function. CAS Google Scholar Lefevre M, Redman LM, Heilbronn LK, Smith JV, Martin CK, Rood JC, Greenway FL, Williamson DA, Smith SR, Ravussin E, Pennington CALERIE team: Caloric restriction alone and with exercise improves CVD risk in healthy non-obese individuals. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Redman LM, Veldhuis JD, Rood J, Smith SR, Williamson D, Ravussin E, for the Pennington CALERIE Team: The effect of caloric restriction interventions on growth hormone secretion in non-obese men and women. PubMed Google Scholar Weiss EP, Racette SB, Villareal DT, Fontana L, Steger-May K, Schechtman KB, Klein S, Holloszy JO, Washington University School of Medicine CALERIE Group: Improvements in glucose tolerance and insulin action induced by increasing energy expenditure or decreasing energy intake: a randomized controlled trial. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Weiss EP, Racette SB, Villareal DT, Fontana L, Steger-May K, Schechtman KB, Klein S, Ehsani AA, Holloszy JO, Washington University School of Medicine CALERIE Group: Lower extremity muscle size and strength and aerobic capacity decrease with caloric restriction but not with exercise-induced weight loss. PubMed Google Scholar Verdery RB, Walford RL: Changes in plasma lipids and lipoproteins in humans during a 2-year period of dietary restriction in Biosphere 2. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Walford RL, Mock D, MacCallum T, Laseter JL: Physiologic changes in humans subjected to severe, selective calorie restriction for two years in biosphere 2: health, aging, and toxicological perspectives. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Walford RL, Mock D, Verdery R, MacCallum T: Calorie restriction in biosphere 2: alterations in physiologic, hematologic, hormonal, and biochemical parameters in humans restricted for a 2-year period. PubMed Google Scholar Fontana L, Meyer TE, Klein S, Holloszy JO: Long-term calorie restriction is highly effective in reducing the risk for atherosclerosis in humans. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Fontana L, Klein S, Holloszy JO, Premachandra BN: Effect of long-term calorie restriction with adequate protein and micronutrients on thyroid hormones. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Meyer TE, Kovacs SJ, Ehsani AA, Klein S, Holloszy JO, Fontana L: Long-term caloric restriction ameliorates the decline in diastolic function in humans. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Willcox BJ, Willcox DC, Todoriki H, Fujiyoshi A, Yano K, He Q, Curb JD, Suzuki M: Caloric restriction, the traditional Okinawan diet, and healthy aging: the diet of the world's longest-lived people and its potential impact on morbidity and life span. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Holloszy JO, Fontana L: Caloric restriction in humans. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Crujeiras AB, Parra D, Abete I, Martinez JA: A hypocaloric diet enriched in legumes specifically mitigates lipid peroxidation in obese subjects. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Crujeiras AB, Parra D, Goyenechea E, Abete I, Martinez JA: Tachyphylaxis effects on postprandial oxidative stress and mitochondrial-related gene expression in overweight subjects after a period of energy restriction. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Dandona P, Mohanty P, Ghanim H, Aljada A, Browne R, Hamouda W, Prabhala A, Afzal A, Garg R: The suppressive effect of dietary restriction and weight loss in the obese on the generation of reactive oxygen species by leukocytes, lipid peroxidation, and protein carbonylation. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Skrha J, Kunesova M, Hilgertova J, Weiserova H, Krizova J, Kotrlikova E: Short-term very low calorie diet reduces oxidative stress in obese type 2 diabetic patients. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Galassetti PR, Nemet D, Pescatello A, Rose-Gottron C, Larson J, Cooper DM: Exercise, caloric restriction, and systemic oxidative stress. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Veldhuis JD, Iranmanesh A, Evans WS, Lizarralde G, Thorner MO, Vance ML: Amplitude suppression of the pulsatile mode of immunoradiometric luteinizing hormone release in fasting-induced hypoandrogenemia in normal men. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Witte AV, Fobker M, Gellner R, Knecht S, Floel A: Caloric restriction improves memory in elderly humans. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Dandona P, Mohanty P, Hamouda W, Ghanim H, Aljada A, Garg R, Kumar V: Inhibitory effect of a two day fast on reactive oxygen species ROS generation by leucocytes and plasma ortho-tyrosine and meta-tyrosine concentrations. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Dalle-Donne I, Rossi R, Colombo R, Giustarini D, Milzani A: Biomarkers of oxidative damage in human disease. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Larson-Meyer DE, Redman L, Heilbronn LK, Martin CK, Ravussin E: Caloric restriction with or without exercise: the fitness versus fatness debate. PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Silverman NE, Nicklas BJ, Ryan AS: Addition of aerobic exercise to a weight loss program increases BMD, with an associated reduction in inflammation in overweight postmenopausal women. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Yassine HN, Marchetti CM, Krishnan RK, Vrobel TR, Gonzalez F, Kirwan JP: Effects of exercise and caloric restriction on insulin resistance and cardiometabolic risk factors in older obese adults--a randomized clinical trial. PubMed Google Scholar Varady KA, Roohk DJ, Loe YC, McEvoy-Hein BK, Hellerstein MK: Effects of modified alternate-day fasting regimens on adipocyte size, triglyceride metabolism, and plasma adiponectin levels in mice. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Descamps O, Riondel J, Ducros V, Roussel AM: Mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species and incidence of age-associated lymphoma in OF1 mice: effect of alternate-day fasting. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Duan W, Guo Z, Jiang H, Ware M, Mattson MP: Reversal of behavioral and metabolic abnormalities, and insulin resistance syndrome, by dietary restriction in mice deficient in brain-derived neurotrophic factor. CAS PubMed Google Scholar Ahmet I, Wan R, Mattson MP, Lakatta EG, Talan M: Cardioprotection by intermittent fasting in rats. PubMed Google Scholar Mager DE, Wan R, Brown M, Cheng A, Wareski P, Abernethy DR, Mattson MP: Caloric restriction and intermittent fasting alter spectral measures of heart rate and blood pressure variability in rats. |
| Weight loss: Is focusing on satiety better than calorie counting? | Are BCAA Branched Chain Amino Acids Healthy? Why we may want to strive not to exceed the recommended intake of protein. The Benefits of Early Time-Restricted Eating Calories eaten in the morning count less and are healthier than calories eaten in the evening. Time-Restricted Eating Put to the Test Are there benefits to giving yourself a bigger daily break from eating? Trailer for How Not to Diet: Dr. The Diet and the Fasting-Mimicking Diet Put to the Test The effects of eating only 5 days a week or a fasting-mimicking diet 5 days a month. Does Intermittent Fasting Increase Human Life Expectancy? Alternate-day modified fasting is put to the test for lifespan extension. Is Alternate-Day Intermittent Fasting Safe? Eating every other day can raise your cholesterol. Alternate-Day Intermittent Fasting Put to the Test Does every-other-day-eating prevent the metabolic slowing that accompanies weight loss or improve compliance over constant day-to-day calorie restriction? Is Fasting for Weight Loss Safe? Is Fasting Beneficial for Weight Loss? Benefits of Fasting for Weight Loss Put to the Test For more than a century, fasting—up to days without calories—has been used a weight-loss treatment. Potential Pitfalls of Calorie Restriction How to preserve bone and mass on a low calorie diet. The Benefits of Calorie Restriction for Longevity Though a bane for dieters, a slower metabolism may actually be a good thing. The Reason Weight Loss Plateaus When You Diet Understanding the metabolic and behavioral adaptations that slow weight loss. The 3, Calorie per Pound Rule Is Wrong How many fewer calories do you have to eat every day to lose one pound of body fat? Does a Ketogenic Diet Help Diabetes or Make It Worse? Keto diets put to the test for diabetes reversal. Keto Diets: Muscle Growth and Bone Density Ketogenic diets found to undermine exercise efforts and lead to muscle shrinkage and bone loss. Are Keto Diets Safe? The effects of ketogenic diets on nutrient sufficiency, gut flora, and heart disease risk. Is Weight Loss on Ketosis Sustainable? Might the appetite-suppressing effects of ketosis improve dietary compliance? Learn whether meal deliveries can help people lose weight successfully and more…. A commercial diet may help a person develop nutritious eating habits. Learn more here. Wait Watchers uses a point system to help people lose weight. Available worldwide, it offers a community, coaching, and etools to help you track…. Diet-to-Go is a meal delivery service that aims to help people lose weight. Here is an overview of how it works and some example menus. Researchers say bariatric surgery can help with weight loss, but it can also help improve cognitive functions including memory. My podcast changed me Can 'biological race' explain disparities in health? Why Parkinson's research is zooming in on the gut Tools General Health Drugs A-Z Health Hubs Health Tools Find a Doctor BMI Calculators and Charts Blood Pressure Chart: Ranges and Guide Breast Cancer: Self-Examination Guide Sleep Calculator Quizzes RA Myths vs Facts Type 2 Diabetes: Managing Blood Sugar Ankylosing Spondylitis Pain: Fact or Fiction Connect About Medical News Today Who We Are Our Editorial Process Content Integrity Conscious Language Newsletters Sign Up Follow Us. Medical News Today. Health Conditions Health Products Discover Tools Connect. Should dieters focus on feeling full after a meal, rather than calorie counting, for best results? By Annie Lennon on June 1, — Fact checked by Rita Ponce, Ph. Share on Pinterest What approach to dieting is best for sustainable weight loss? This question remains under debate. Calorie reduction vs. healthy eating. Advantages of MyPlate over calorie counting. Different diets may benefit different people. What are the unknowns? Work with a dietitian toward weight loss goals. Share this article. Latest news Ovarian tissue freezing may help delay, and even prevent menopause. RSV vaccine errors in babies, pregnant people: Should you be worried? Scientists discover biological mechanism of hearing loss caused by loud noise — and find a way to prevent it. Peer Review reports. Since the seminal work of McCay et al. In species as diverse as fruit flies [ 3 ], guppies [ 4 ], and dogs [ 5 ], CR has been shown to increase longevity. Also, CR reduces the morbidity of a host of diseases, including but not limited to , autoimmune diseases, atherosclerosis, cardiomyopathies, cancer, diabetes, renal diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and respiratory diseases [ 6 , 7 ]. Multiple metabolic pathways have been proposed to be involved in the health-promoting effects of CR, as described in detail previously [ 8 — 11 ]. In addition to an actual reduction in kcal intake, selected nutrients e. An alternative to CR, alternate-day fasting ADF consists of two interchanging days; one day, subjects may consume food ad libitum sometimes equaling twice the normal intake ; on the other day, food is reduced or withheld altogether [ 15 ]. Interestingly, while CR regimens typically reduce body weight, ADF regimens often allow for the maintenance of normal body weight, because the subjects may gorge themselves during their feeding days [ 16 ]. However, the life-extending benefits of ADF may rival those of CR, particularly in regard to reducing the respective risks of developing type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease [ 15 ]. While CR reduces caloric intake, CR combined with exercise CE both reduces caloric intake albeit to a lesser extent than CR-only protocols and increases caloric expenditure. Within the last decade, considerable research has examined whether including exercise in a CR regimen augments the benefits elicited by CR or promotes additional benefits not observed in a CR-only regimen. The results of these studies have been mixed. Depending on the outcome measured, CE either augments a benefit elicited by CR alone [ 17 — 20 ], fails to do so [ 21 — 24 ], or elicits a benefit that was not elicited by CR alone [ 25 ]. This extension of life may be solely due to the reduction of the amino acid methionine [ 33 ]. Many religions incorporate fasting for both spiritual and physical benefits [ 34 , 35 ]. During the holy month of Ramadan, which varies according to the lunar calendar, Muslims abstain from eating or drinking from sunrise Sahur to sunset Iftar. Greek Orthodox Christians fast for a total of - days annually including the following main fasting periods: the Nativity Fast 40 days prior to Christmas , Lent 48 days prior to Easter , and the Assumption 15 days in August. The Biblical-based Daniel Fast typically incorporates a day fasting period in which individuals refrain from consuming animal products, refined carbohydrates, food additives, preservatives, sweeteners, flavorings, caffeine, and alcohol. These above mentioned forms of fasting have been studied using a laboratory-based approach, with findings published in the scientific literature. Although limited objective data are available for other forms of religiously motivated fasts, including but not limited to practices observed in China, Tibet, and India, as well as those of Buddhist monks, it should be noted that fasting within these populations is commonplace. Hence, research investigating the health-specific effects of fasting within these samples is warranted. The outline of this literature review is as follows: First, data related to CR in both animals and humans will be presented. Next, CE will be reviewed with regard to data obtained from both animal and human investigations. Data will then be presented in relation to ADF in both animals and humans. DR, in particular protein restriction and methionine restriction, will be considered as an alternative to CR. Finally, the three aforementioned forms of religious fasting will be presented. The paper concludes by providing a summary and suggestions for future research. Rodents and primates are the two most commonly studied species in CR animal trials. Many studies use rodents that have been altered genetically to develop various morbidities, including cancer and diabetes. Regarding primates, the majority of work is conducted on rhesus monkeys [ 36 — 41 ]. Despite having their caloric intake reduced, the animals are provided sufficient amounts of nutrients and vitamins so as to avoid malnutrition [ 42 ]. The magnitude of CR i. the amount of calories that are reduced is positively correlated with longevity until the point that CR induces starvation [ 43 ]. Most studies initiate CR during the weaning phase and continue throughout the animal's lifespan. Short-term CR has also been examined, with some studies lasting as little as 10 days [ 44 ]. Similar to magnitude, the duration of CR is positively correlated with longevity [ 43 ]. Several animal trials have found that CR improves cardiovascular health [ 36 , 39 , 45 — 47 ]. Specifically, CR reduces levels of triglyceride [ 36 , 39 ], phospholipid [ 36 ], and total and low density lipoprotein LDL cholesterol [ 39 ]. CR also increases HDL2b levels [ 39 ] and reduces inflammatory markers [ 36 , 44 , 48 ] such as TNF-α, IL-6, C-reactive protein, and NF-κB. In addition to positive changes in blood lipids, which appear to be associated with reduced risk for cardiovascular disease, several studies have noted significant declines in both blood pressure and heart rate [ 36 , 39 , 45 — 47 ]. Moreover, other work has noted cardioprotective alterations in gene expression [ 45 , 47 ]. In addition to cardiovascular-specific effects, CR causes a variety of improvements related to overall health. CR appears to improve glucoregulatory function and insulin sensitivity, particularly in rodents and rhesus monkeys [ 38 , 39 , 48 — 50 ]. Specifically, several studies have observed a decrease in fasting blood glucose and insulin [ 38 , 39 , 49 , 50 ]. Regarding biomarkers of overall health, reductions in markers of oxidative stress such as hydrogen peroxide, protein carbonyls, and nitrotyrosine have been noted [ 41 , 51 — 53 ]. Also, CR has been shown to lower brain-reactive antibodies [ 54 ] and to reduce T-lymphocyte proliferation [ 55 ]. Collectively, these changes have been associated with an increase in lifespan in many studies involving animals [ 1 , 55 , 59 , 60 ]. It is difficult to definitively answer whether or not CR prolongs human life because of the ethical and logistical limitations of research design. Rather than measuring longevity directly, most human CR studies measure biomarkers correlated with longevity. Collectively, these studies have noted favorable changes in multifarious biomarkers, particularly those related to cardiovascular and glucoregulatory function. As noted above, most animal CR studies initiate the restriction of calories during the weaning phase and continue throughout the subject's lifespan. Obviously, no human study has ever initiated CR that early or for that long a duration. Instead, CR is typically instituted for a period of 6 - 12 months [ 61 — 71 ]. However, a few studies have examined CR for 2 years [ 72 — 74 ], ~6 years [ 75 — 77 ], and longer [ 78 ]. The majority of work has been conducted on healthy, middle aged, non-obese normal or overweight men and women, with a significant amount of investigations utilizing data obtained from the CALERIE Comprehensive Assessment of Long Term Effects of Reducing Caloric Intake program [ 61 , 64 — 67 , 69 — 71 ]. This program was initiated by the National Institute on Aging to investigate the adaptive responses of CR on free-living humans [ 79 ]. In addition to the CALERIE program, another investigation of importance, Biosphere 2, contained eight subjects aged from years [ 72 — 74 ]. These subjects lived in an enclosed ~3 acre "ecological mini-world" for two years [ 79 ]. Food intake was subnormal due to the inability to grow enough food for ad libitum consumption; hence, subjects followed a CR plan by default. Aside from normal weight men and women, investigations involving CR have also included obese [ 80 — 83 ], diabetic [ 83 ], young [ 84 , 85 ], and elderly [ 78 , 86 ] individuals. Alternatively, some studies have reduced caloric intake by a fixed number of calories rather than a percentage of usual intake [ 82 , 83 ]. As mentioned above, numerous studies have found that CR improves cardiovascular and glucoregulatory health. Specifically, CR may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease by lowering total cholesterol, triglycerides, blood pressure, and carotid intima-media thickness [ 62 , 67 , 72 , 75 , 77 ]. CR also has been shown to attenuate the age-related decline in diastolic function [ 77 ]. Regarding glucoregulatory health, circulating insulin [ 64 , 70 , 73 — 75 , 86 ] and glucose [ 70 , 73 — 75 ] levels decrease - while insulin sensitivity increases [ 70 ] - following a period of CR. CR has also been shown to attenuate oxidative stress [ 61 , 65 , 80 — 84 , 87 ], a condition thought to contribute to aging and disease [ 88 ]. In addition, enhanced verbal memory performance has been reported in elderly individuals on a CR regimen as assessed by the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Task [ 86 ]. Unfortunately, CR does not appear to retard the age-related loss of bone [ 69 ] and muscle [ 71 ] mass. A number of studies have examined whether the addition of exercise to a CR regimen CE augments any of the health-promoting benefits caused by CR alone. Animal CE studies often feature a minimum of four groups: 1 a sedentary group fed ad libitum , 2 a sedentary group fed a CR diet, 3 a voluntary exercise group fed ad libitum , and 4 a voluntary exercise group fed a CR diet. Male rats are often the animal of choice for CE studies, because they do not increase their caloric intake to compensate for their exercise-induced caloric expenditure [ 22 ]. Voluntary wheel running is typically the exercise of choice for these studies. Some studies have found that CE does not elicit health-promoting benefits beyond those elicited by CR [ 21 — 24 ]. However, CE reduces C-reactive protein levels to a greater extent than CR by itself [ 19 ]. Regarding myocardial health, CE lowers the likelihood of developing both myocardial necrosis and myocardial ischemia [ 17 , 18 ]. CE has been shown to attenuate age-related sarcopenia to a greater extent than CR by itself [ 20 ]. Moreover, CE reduces muscle fatigue and may increase the oxidative capacity of muscle fibers [ 25 ]. However, the addition of exercise to a CR regimen does not appear to affect an animal's maximal life span, the outcome of most interest to most investigators [ 22 ]. Future work in this area should focus on how different exercise intensities, volumes, frequencies, and modalities affect the ability of exercise to augment the health-promoting effects of CR. Several CE studies have involved human subjects [ 61 , 64 , 66 , 67 , 84 , 89 — 91 ]. Unlike the majority of the animal CE studies, human CE studies typically quantify the caloric expenditure caused by the exercise regimen. The expenditure is often accomplished by performing aerobic exercise several e. Many investigations have noted no significant difference between CE and CR regarding their respective effects on fasting insulin levels [ 64 ], DNA damage [ 61 ], muscle mitochondrial gene expression [ 61 ], triglyceride levels [ 67 ], and liver lipid content [ 66 ]. In contrast to these findings, two investigations have noted a further reduction in both diastolic blood pressure and LDL cholesterol with CE when compared to CR alone [ 67 , 89 ]. Moreover, other work has noted that CE improved insulin sensitivity, while CR-alone failed to do so [ 89 ]. Also, CE has been shown to increase bone mineral density at the femoral neck and reduce sTNFR1, an inflammatory biomarker, in overweight postmenopausal women [ 90 ]. Collectively, although results are somewhat mixed, it appears that the addition of exercise to a CR plan may provide further health benefits. Perhaps of main importance, it may be easier for an individual to comply with a CE regimen than a CR regimen when total caloric reduction increased caloric expenditure combined with decreased caloric intake is held constant. For example, a In an attempt to determine the optimal plan for improved health, future work may investigate varying amounts of exercise-induced caloric expenditure i. less than or greater than Indeed, compliance is of major importance when considering long-term CR regimens. ADF consists of alternating hour periods of ad libitum intake "feast period" and partial or complete restriction of caloric consumption "fast period". Unlike CR, ADF need not necessarily reduce overall caloric consumption or bodyweight, because subjects may compensate for the reduced caloric intake during fast periods by gorging themselves during feast periods [ 15 , 16 ]. ADF has been found to extend lifespan in several animal trials [ 16 , 93 , 94 ]. Interestingly, Duan and colleagues suggest that an increase in brain-derived neurotrophic factor BDNF may mediate the observed life extension caused by an ADF regimen [ 94 ]. The ability of ADF to retard or prevent altogether the development of many morbidities, including cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, cancers, and diabetes, may also explain some of the observed increases in longevity [ 15 , 16 , 94 — 99 ]. Many animal ADF studies have noted improvements in cardiovascular function. Both resting heart rate and blood pressure are reduced following a period of ADF [ 96 , 98 , 99 ]. Heart rate variability, which is associated with improved cardiovascular function and a reduced probability of heart failure, has been noted to be favorably affected by ADF in rats [ ]. Ahmet and colleagues [ 95 ] noted a prophylactic ability of ADF to attenuate the development of post-infarct chronic heart failure. In this work, the investigators induced myocardial infarction MI in Sprague-Dawley rats that had been following a diet of either ADF or ad libitum intake. When compared to the ad libitum -fed group, the rats on the ADF schedule had less left ventricle remodeling and functional decline following the MI. Glucoregulatory function is also typically improved following an ADF regimen. ADF can improve insulin sensitivity, which results in lower fasting glucose and insulin concentrations and improved glucose tolerance [ 16 , 99 ]. However, Mager et al. In contrast, Anson et al. One of the most germane questions regarding ADF is whether or not it can elicit benefits that are comparable to CR, a question best answered by including both plans within the same research design. While some studies have done just that, as indicated by the work of Anson et al. This highlights one of the main directions that should be taken in future research regarding CR and ADF. Of the ADF trials that have been performed, relatively few have used human subjects. Originally, human trials were performed simply to examine the feasibility of maintaining an ADF regimen [ ]. Now that feasibility has been established, research turns to examining what health-related benefits ADF can yield and through which mechanisms these benefits are yielded. Few human ADF studies incorporate a fasting period lasting longer than 20 weeks due to ethical and logistical i. compliance limitations. In fact, many trials have lasted only a few days. Most subjects are able to remain compliant throughout their fast, and few experience any fast-related health complications. However, as expected, subjects often report hunger and irritability during fast days as measured via questionnaires , which calls into question the sustainability of long-term ADF diets [ ]. Despite being able to consume food ad libitum during feast days, human subjects sometimes experience weight loss as a result of the ADF regimen. By contrast, animals often maintain bodyweight by gorging themselves during feast periods [ 15 , 16 ]. Interestingly, Heilbronn and colleagues [ ] examined nonobese humans and noted that subjects that classified themselves as "big eaters" lost less weight than those that claimed that they "watched what they ate. Human trials have noted mixed findings with ADF regarding glucoregulatory function. Heilbronn and colleagues [ ] noted a decrease in fasting insulin but no difference in fasting glucose following 22 days of ADF. Another study by the same group [ ] found that women on a 22 day ADF regimen cleared serum glucose following a test meal kcal, In the same study, men on an ADF diet experienced a reduced insulin response to the test meal, but this effect was not observed in women. Taken together, these findings suggest that men and women may respond differently to ADF. In addition, Halberg et al. Future studies should examine potential causes for the sex-specific differences noted above. Johnson and colleagues [ ] noted substantial benefits from an 8-week long ADF regimen on overweight, asthmatic subjects. Nine subjects consumed food ad libitum on feast days and one meal replacement shake, which consisted of either or kcals for women and men, respectively, on fast days. Peak Expiratory Flow PEF significantly increased within 2 weeks of the ADF diet; however, forced expiratory volume FEV 1 did not increase following the protocol. The beneficial effects of albuterol administration were greater following the 8 weeks of ADF compared to baseline values. The authors suggest that the diet improved "bronchial responsiveness. Johnson and colleagues have examined ADF regimens over the course of several years, including over subjects as of The authors have noted improvements in the following: insulin sensitivity, asthma, seasonal allergies, autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, infectious disease of viral, bacterial, and fungal origin, inflammatory central nervous system lesions involved with Tourette's syndrome and Meniere's disease, cardiac arrhythmias, and menopause-related hot flashes [ ]. Much remains to be known regarding the mechanisms responsible for the effects of ADF on these outcomes. Moreover, data pertaining to the use of ADF in human subjects are not yet available in regard to biomarkers specific to blood lipids, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Clearly, this area of research has the potential for new discovery. DR need not necessarily result in CR, because the reduced intake of a particular nutrient typically a macronutrient may be offset by an increased intake of one or more other nutrients. Consequently, many studies have attempted to determine if DR can elicit life-extending effects comparable to CR. This area of study may be partly motivated by the work of Simpson and coworkers [ ] who have proposed that state-space geometric models can be used to determine the influence of kcal reduction and specific nutrients on longevity and associated outcome measures. Neither carbohydrate restriction nor lipid restriction appear to be effective alternatives to CR. Lipid restriction has been shown to have no effect on longevity [ 26 , 27 ]. Regarding carbohydrate, several studies have found that increasing intake either increases or has no effect on longevity, suggesting that restriction would not extend life [ 28 , 29 ], also reviewed in [ 30 ]. Moreover, both forms of macronutrient restriction fail to decrease reactive oxygen species production or oxidative DNA damage [ 31 , 32 ]. Protein restriction appears to be a viable candidate for an alternative to CR. Sixteen out of 18 reviewed experiments found that protein restriction increased maximum lifespan in rodents reviewed in [ 30 ]. Moreover, several of the reviewed studies compensated for the reduction in protein by increasing carbohydrate intake; this balanced total caloric intake and ensured that the prolongation of life was due to restriction of protein and not calories. In regard to the above, several studies have examined whether restriction of an individual amino acid accounts for most or all of the life-extending benefits of protein restriction. While a few studies have found that tryptophan restriction increases lifespan [ , ], the majority of studies have focused on methionine restriction. As with tryptophan restriction, methionine restriction increases longevity [ — ]. Forty percent methionine restriction has been reported to decrease both mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation and oxidative damage in mitochondrial DNA [ , ]. Further evidence that methionine restriction increases longevity reviewed in [ ] : 1 methionine content has an inverse relationship with maximum life span in mammals [ ]; 2 of the amino acids, methionine is one of the most vulnerable to oxidation by reactive oxygen species [ ]; 3 methionine supplementation increases LDL cholesterol oxidation [ ]; and 4 raising methionine intake increases plasma homocysteine concentrations, which in turn elevates the risk of cardiovascular disease and mortality [ ]. The investigators found that this restriction failed to reduce both mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation and oxidative damage in mitochondrial DNA. The authors concluded that methionine is the only amino acid that can affect mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation and subsequent oxidative stress by manipulating its intake. In summary, neither carbohydrate restriction nor lipid restriction appear to be responsible for the life extension caused by CR, while approximately half of the life extension effect of CR seems to be ascribable to protein restriction. A wealth of evidence indicates that methionine restriction might account for most or all of the life-extending benefits of protein restriction. Fortunately, a methionine-restricted diet is both feasible and tolerable [ ], suggesting that it might be an attractive alternative to CR for those seeking the health-enhancing properties of such a plan. However, because the evidence provided above has been generated using animal models, further work involving human test subjects is necessary before firm conclusions can be made. Several religions place one or more of the following restrictions on food consumption: 1 the types of foods permitted for consumption in general or during particular times of the year; 2 the time of day when food consumption is permitted; and 3 food preparation [ 34 ]. These types of restrictions can either persist year-round or be active only during special fasting periods. The text below focuses on the following fasting periods: 1 Islamic Ramadan; 2 the three principal fasting periods of Greek Orthodox Christianity Nativity, Lent, and the Assumption ; and 3 the Biblical-based Daniel Fast. The reason for the inclusion of these religious fasts in this review and the exclusion of others is that, to our collective knowledge, these are the only fasts about which scholarly research has been performed that explicitly detailed the subjects' dietary intake. During the holy month of Ramadan, all healthy adult Muslims are forbidden from consuming any food or water from sunrise Sahur to sunset Iftar. Food and fluid intake become nocturnal during Ramadan, and the common practice is to eat one large meal after sunset and one lighter meal before dawn [ ]. Ramadan is clearly the most commonly researched religious fast. The collective work highlights both the positive and negative effects of Ramadan fasting on overall health. It was previously thought that Ramadan fasting often led to reduced energy intake and weight loss [ ], but recent studies have found that caloric intake actually increases despite the decreased meal frequency [ ]. In relation to macronutrient composition, meals are often composed of more fat and less carbohydrate during Ramadan than during the rest of the year [ , ]. Ramadan fasting has elicited mixed results in relation to cardiovascular health, particularly regarding lipid profiles. Hallak and Nomani [ ] and Ziaee et al. However, several other studies have found an increase in HDL-C levels and a decline or no change in LDL-C levels [ , , — ]. The majority of studies have found no difference in triglyceride levels [ — ], while one study noted a decrease following a period of Ramadan fasting [ ]. Salehi and Neghab [ ] reported declining total cholesterol levels following a Ramadan fast. Changes in heart rate and blood pressure have also been observed during Ramadan. Husain et al [ ] observed a significant lowering of resting heart rate in men, although no changes were noted regarding the resting heart rate of women. Heart rate during steady-state aerobic exercise has also been shown to decrease during the fast compared to non-fasting values [ , ]. Regarding blood pressure, one study noted a decrease in both resting systolic and diastolic blood pressure -although this change was noted in both fasters and non-fasters, raising a question regarding the ability of Ramadan fasting to actually promote such an effect [ ] while four studies found no difference in either variable [ , — ]. Ramadan [ ] compared blood pressure changes during steady-state aerobic exercise during and after Ramadan fasting. Systolic - but not diastolic - blood pressure significantly increased during exercise when subjects were fasting. Contrastingly, neither systolic nor diastolic blood pressure changed during exercise in subjects who were not fasting. To our knowledge, only two studies to date have examined the effects of Ramadan fasting on oxidative stress and antioxidant status, highlighting an important area for future research. Ibrahim et al [ ] observed a reduction in malondialdehyde MDA erythrocyte concentrations, while no changes were noted regarding levels of either serum MDA or plasma protein-bound carbonyls. No changes were found regarding the concentration of glutathione or the activities of glutathione peroxidase and catalase in erythrocytes. Plasma levels of ß-cryptoxanthin and total carotenoids significantly decreased during Ramadan fasting, and plasma levels of vitamin C, β-carotene, lycopene, and lutein were non-significantly reduced. No changes were noted regarding plasma levels of α-tocopherol, γ-tocopherol, retinol, α-carotene, and zeaxanthin. Chaouachi and colleagues [ ] reported that blood levels of vitamin A increased, while blood levels of vitamin E decreased during Ramadan fasting. As with the reports of Ramadan's effects on markers of cardiovascular health, similarly mixed results are available regarding Ramadan fasting and the ability to improve glucoregulatory health. Two studies have noted a decrease in fasting blood glucose following Ramadan [ , ], while a recent study noted no effect on blood glucose levels [ ]. Additionally, the authors found a significant correlation between changes in serum leptin and serum insulin levels, which suggests that insulin may play a role in regulating leptin secretion [ ]. Aside from the potentially beneficial effects discussed above, some studies have noted adverse effects associated with Ramadan fasting. Ramadan fasting has been shown to negatively impact nocturnal sleep by increasing sleep latency and decreasing both slow wave sleep and rapid eye movement sleep [ , ]. Lack of sleep can cause irritability [ ] and has been shown to lead to an increase in the intake of stimulants such as coffee and tea during the month of Ramadan [ ]. Ramadan fasting may lead to ulcer complications, as studies have reported increased gastric acidity during the day, with altered circadian patterns of levels of plasma gastrin, gastric pH, glucose and calcium [ ]. Other potential adverse health effects associated with Ramadan fasting include energy level imbalances [ ], dehydration [ ], decreased athletic performance [ ], and altered circadian fluctuations in hormone levels [ ]. Collectively, the above-listed studies have reported conflicting effects of Ramadan fasting on a number of health-related biomarkers. There are several potential confounding variables that may influence the effect of Ramadan fasting on these biomarkers, including: age, physical activity, diet, sleep cycles, and cultural habits [ , ]. Regarding the latter, El-Ati et al. Food choices and eating habits affect metabolism and could potentially affect the above-listed biomarkers. Future investigations should take these variables - as well as other confounding variables - into consideration. There are three principal fasting periods for Greek Orthodox Christians. During the 40 days that precede Christmas Nativity , dairy products, eggs, and meat are proscribed every day, while fish and olive oil are also forbidden on Wednesdays and Fridays. During the 48 days that precede Easter Lent , dairy products, eggs, and meat are proscribed. Olive oil consumption is permitted only on weekends during this period, and fish consumption is only allowed on March 25 th and Palm Sunday. During the first 15 days of August the Assumption , dairy products, eggs, and meat are proscribed. Olive oil consumption is permitted only on weekends during this period, and fish consumption is only allowed on August 6 th. Cheese, eggs, fish, meat, milk, and olive oil are also proscribed on every Wednesday and Friday that falls outside of the principal fasting periods. This latter proscription is temporarily lifted on the week following Christmas, Easter, and the Pentecost. Collectively, dietary consumption is restricted for days each year. Most studies have reported a decreased caloric intake during the fasting periods [ — ], which may result in lowered body mass [ , ]. Percentagewise, carbohydrate intake appears to increase, while both protein and fat intake decrease [ — ]. Both saturated fat and trans-fatty acid consumption appear to decrease during fasting periods, while both monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat consumption do not change [ , ]. Both total cholesterol and LDL-C levels decrease during fasting periods [ , ], while conflicting results exist regarding HDL-C levels [ , ]. Greek Orthodox Christian fasting appears to have no effect on blood glucose levels [ , ], although fiber intake increases during fasting periods [ — ]. Both riboflavin [ ] and calcium [ , , ] intake appear to decrease during fasting periods, while magnesium intake appears to increase [ , ]. The intake of the following vitamins and minerals do not appear to change during fasting periods: vitamin A [ , ]; thiamin [ ]; niacin [ ]; vitamin B 12 [ , ]; vitamin C [ , , ]; vitamin E [ , ]; phosphorus [ ]; potassium [ , ]; and zinc [ ]. Mixed results have been recorded regarding the intake of both folate [ , , ] and sodium [ , ]. To our knowledge, only one study has examined the effects of Greek Orthodox Christian fasting on other hematological variables [ ]. The authors reported that fasters experienced a relative increase in serum ferritin levels, a relative decrease in MCHC levels, and no relative change in levels of hemoglobin, serum iron, and transferrin when compared with non-fasters during the Christmas fasting period. The authors also reported that the non-fasters' hematocrit declined significantly However, this change is of little to no clinical relevance, as all values were within normal range. There are conflicting findings on the effects of Greek Orthodox Christian fasting on blood pressure. One study found that systolic blood pressure increased during fasting periods [ ], while another study found no change in systolic blood pressure when fasters were compared with non-fasters [ ]. One study reported that non-fasters' diastolic blood pressure decreased significantly during fasting periods when compared to the changes in fasters' diastolic blood pressure [ ], while another study reported that fasters' diastolic blood pressure did not change during fasting periods [ ]. In summary, Greek Orthodox Christian fasting appears to lower caloric intake and body mass, and both total and LDL-C decrease during fasting periods. The intake of most vitamins and minerals do not appear to change during these periods, although riboflavin and calcium intake each appear to decrease, and magnesium intake appears to increase. More research remains to be performed on hematological variables and blood pressure during fasting periods due to both the lack of previous research and the inconclusive findings. Also, future studies should examine each of the three principal fasting periods both separately and aggregately, because each fasting period has unique food proscriptions and durations. A popular fast practiced by many Christians and Jews is the Daniel Fast, based on the Biblical story of Daniel , in which Daniel resolved not to defile himself with the royal food and wine, and he asked the chief official for permission to provide to him and his three friends nothing but vegetables to eat and water to drink for 10 days. Later in the same book Daniel , Daniel again partook in a 21 day period of "clean" eating, during which time he ate no choice food meat or wine. Based on these two stories, a modern day Daniel Fast involves ad libitum intake of certain foods, but the food choices are restricted to essentially fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, seeds, and oil. In essence, this plan is a form of DR and resembles a vegan diet, which has been reported to yield health-enhancing properties [ , ]. However, a Daniel Fast is much more stringent, because preservatives, additives, sweeteners, flavorings, caffeine, and alcohol are each forbidden. However, because individuals traditionally follow this fast for religious purposes in an attempt to become "closer to God" during a time of extended prayer, the anecdotal reports have indicated excellent compliance. To test the health benefits of the Daniel Fast within a laboratory-based protocol, we recently enrolled 43 subjects 13 men; 30 women; 35 ± 1 yrs; range: yrs to complete a day Daniel Fast. Pre and post intervention, subjects underwent a variety of tests including measures of body weight and composition measured via dual energy x-ray absorptiometry , resting blood pressure and heart rate, fasting blood measures of oxidative stress, inflammation, blood lipids, insulin, and glucose. Subjects' self reported compliance, mood, and satiety in relation to the fast were also recorded. We noted excellent compliance to the fast Insulin, HOMA-IR, and C-reactive protein, although lowered to a clinically meaningful extent, were not of statistical significance. Unfortunately, due to the drastic decrease in total cholesterol, HDL-C was lower after the fast as compared to before the fast Although body weight and body fat were reduced slightly, no significant difference was noted [ ]. Similar results as presented above have been noted in a recent follow-up investigation of the Daniel Fast unpublished findings. |
| Is 'Starvation Mode' Real or Imaginary? A Critical Look | Trepanowski JF, Bloomer RJ: The impact of religious fasting on human health. Larson-Meyer DE, Newcomer BR, Heilbronn LK, Volaufova J, Smith SR, Alfonso AJ, Lefevre M, Rood JC, Williamson DA, Ravussin E, Pennington CALERIE Team: Effect of 6-month calorie restriction and exercise on serum and liver lipids and markers of liver function. Many UC-authored scholarly publications are freely available on this site because of the UC's open access policies. Ge TT, Yao XX, Zhao FL, Zou XH, Yang W, Cui RJ, et al. as well as a subjective mm visual analogue scale VAS was used to score how subjects were feeling. How to avoid the metabolic slowdown. However, because individuals traditionally follow this fast for religious purposes in an attempt to become "closer to God" during a time of extended prayer, the anecdotal reports have indicated excellent compliance. |
| caloric restriction | Health Topics | globalhumanhelp.org | Although some reduction in calorie Energy-boosting mindfulness practices Detoxification for drug detox restrictioh inevitable, there are a number of things you can do satity mitigate the effect. Cancel OK. Comparison of weight-loss diets with different compositions of fat, protein, and carbohydrates. No changes were found regarding the concentration of glutathione or the activities of glutathione peroxidase and catalase in erythrocytes. PubMed Google Scholar. |
This review focuses on summarizing current Heart health community on how time-restricted feeding TRF and continuous caloric restriction Restrction affect central neuroendocrine caloric restriction and satiety involved Restrictionn regulating sqtiety. Several interconnected regions of the valoric, brainstem, restrictino cortical areas of the brain caoric involved Detoxification for drug detox the regulation of satiety. Following CR and TRF, the increase in hunger and reduction in satiety signals of the melanocortin system [neuropeptide Y NPYproopiomelanocortin POMCand agouti-related peptide AgRP ] appear similar between CR and TRF protocols, as do the dopaminergic responses in the mesocorticolimbic circuit. However, ghrelin and leptin signaling via the melanocortin system appears to improve energy balance signals and reduce hyperphagia following TRF, which has not been reported in CR. In addition to satiety systems, CR and TRF also influence circadian rhythms.
0 thoughts on “Caloric restriction and satiety”