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The oxidative stress theory and its consequences at cellular level is shown in Figure 1. Figure 1. Model of free-radical formation and its consequences at a cellular level. The intense oxygen consumption in the brain induces the formation of reactive oxygen species ROS.
Their high reactivity leads to an increase of the oxidative stress, which promotes: i glycosylation and oxidation of proteins, leading to the formation of advanced glycation products AGE or loss of protein function; ii DNA damage with oxidation or nitration of guanine bases; iii lipid peroxidation with reduction of membrane fluidity and increase in cell permeability, resulting in alteration of cellular homeostasis.
All these factors can contribute to the development of neurodegenerative disorders. A diet characterized by vegetables and fruits, usually rich in Vitamin C, carotenoids, and Vitamin E, is positively associated with cognitive efficiency and reduced the risk of dementia in the elderly.
From a chemical point of view, Vitamin C is defined as Ascorbic Acid AA. It has six-carbon compound that contain two acid-ionizing groups Ballaz and Rebec, In the human body, the brain is the region with the highest concentration of AA Smythies, This high concentration, attests to the fundamental involvement of AA in the brain function.
Indeed, many studies suggest that AA has a neuroprotective role thanks to an antioxidant activity modulation Harrison et al. This modulation is related to the buffering of the oxidizing species induced by methamphetamine Ito et al. It is interesting to note that the AA activity is quite vast, also considering the interaction with Vitamin E.
Their association is remarkable in the protection of membranes and other hydrophobic compartments Beyer, ; Getoff, A clinical study has highlighted the association between vitamin E and C intake and a delayed AD onset in a group of elderly subjects Shen and Ji, ; similar results were also obtained by Shen and colleagues in Kontush and Shekatolina, In fact, it has been shown that a supplementation of these vitamins and so their greater concentration in cerebrospinal fluids can prevent lipid oxidation in AD patients Taghizadeh et al.
The importance of vitamin C in preventing and combating neurological disorders has also been demonstrated in a recent work: in a murine model, decreased levels of AA levels influenced the neural network development, and this alteration correlated with the pathophysiology of neurological disorders Ikeda et al.
In an in vitro study, Lee et al. Vitamin E is a lipophilic molecule that could be found in plants and in many Mediterranean diet food Schirinzi et al. E is referred to compounds called tocopherols and tocotrienols Ulatowski and Manor, These usually include eight molecules α- β- γ- δ-tocopherols and α- β- γ-,δ -tocotrienolswith great antioxidant capacity Jiang, The presence of an electrophilic hydroxyl group on the chroman ring, allows Vitamin E to be a strong antioxidant.
To understand Vitamin E role as a protective factor in neurodegenerative disorders, it must be considered what happens if it is deficient. For example, it is demonstrated that Vitamin E deficit is related to an impairment of cerebellar Purkinje neurons that are the main integrators of cerebellar neural circuits Ulatowski and Manor, As far as PD, evidence suggests that a Vitamin E supplementation can improve symptoms, functional capabilities and the inflammatory state of affected patients Simonetto et al.
In addition, Khanna et al. Therefore, the use of vitamins E and C as antioxidant supplements is fundamental to delay the onset of neurodegenerative disorders and their complications.
Recently, it has grown an interest in polyunsaturated fatty acids PUFAs and their beneficial effects on health, due to their strong antioxidant properties Fotuhi et al.
PUFAs omega-3 and omega- 6 fatty acids usually have two or more double bonds in the carbon chain structure. Omega-6 fatty acids include linoleic acid LAγ-linolenic acid GLA and arachidonic acid AA. Omega-3 fatty acids include eicosapentaenoic acid EPA and docosahexaenoic acid DHA.
Their intake is important since their limited synthesis in humans Youdim et al. Cell-membrane PUFAs composition could be modified with dietary supplementation but it depends on age and probably also on the quantity PUFAs integration Calder, High fatty acid diet increases their percentage in inflammatory cell membranes of inflammatory cell and reduces AA levels, a stress-related biomarker and an inflammatory process trigger through pro-inflammatory eicosanoids production Calder, ; Dyall, Polyunsaturated fatty acids, in particular EPA and DHA, are interesting because of their beneficial effects in preventing cognitive decline through neuroprotective properties such as increasing nerve membrane neuroplasticity, promoting synaptogenesis, modulating signal transduction pathways in neuronal cells, and attenuating inflammatory processes Youdim et al.
Furthermore, DHA, produced by the desaturation and elongation of α-linolenic acid ALAis able to influence a certain number of membrane proteins, such as receptors, ion channels and enzymes. Furthermore, DHA can modulate dopaminergic, serotonergic, and cholinergic neurotransmission, thus regulating signal transduction pathways Parletta et al.
DHA is also considered important for neurogenesis regulation, neural synapses increase and neuronal damage protection Cruz-Jentoft et al. DHA level decreases significantly both in the blood plasma and in the brain, in physiological aging, above all in AD patients Dupont et al.
However, several studies suggest that Omega-3 fatty acid integration is beneficial only in the early stages of cognitive decline Parletta et al. Indeed, there are discrepancies about fatty acid effectiveness on cognitive functioning Jiao et al.
A recent double-blind randomized study investigated the effectiveness of fatty acid intake omega-3 and omega-6 combined with other antioxidant vitamins in a group of older people with MCI.
In this study Beaudart et al. An attentional functionality improvement was evidenced too specifically, in a symbol cancelation test and in the Stroop test, in particular in the word and color subtests but not in the test in which the interference inhibition capacity is investigated.
Besides, from a functional point of view, the experimental group obtained high scores in tests investigating muscle strength, endurance, power, and balance.
These physical performance parameters are important since they refer to the most demanding daily activities. In parallel, an increase in the quality of life, sleep and perceived fatigue was demonstrated. The results of this study are similar to what described by Bo et al. Sinn et al.
The same results have not been obtained on patients with known neurodegenerative diseases such as AD, to indicate that greater benefit is drawn from taking PUFA in the early stages of cognitive impairment Chiu et al. Coenzyme Q10 2,3-dimethoxymethyldecaprenyl-1,4-benzoquinone is a fat-soluble compound also known as CoQ10, vitamin Q10, ubidecarenone or ubiquinone.
An endogenous substance is produced by mitochondria in doses of about 3—5 mg per day. It is one of the main elements involved in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and acts as an antioxidant.
In vitro studies have shown that CoQ10 easily crosses the blood brain barrier Somayajulu et al. Thanks to its oxidizing and antioxidant properties, it is a cellular redox state modulator.
CoQ10 is located in the internal mitochondrial membrane and protects cells from apoptosis at a morphological and at a molecular level Beal et al. Furthermore, as a lipophilic antioxidant, it can eliminate radicals from membranes, cytosol and plasma.
It plays an important role in PD. In fact, CoQ10 levels are significantly lower than normal in neuron and platelet mitochondria of PD patients.
In vitro studies on fibroblasts of PD patients have shown that CoQ10 intake restores the electron transport chain activity. The first clinical studies on the CoQ10 neuroprotective effects were reported in Beal et al. Muller et al. The antioxidant potential of CoQ10 was further evaluated in a pilot study Chiu et al.
Promising results were also observed in a double-blind randomized clinical trial involving patients with remitting-intermittent multiple sclerosis Sanoobar et al. The experimental group took mg of CoQ10 for 12 weeks, and showed a significant reduction in inflammatory markers, such as tumor necrosis factor α TNF-αinterleukin 6 IL-6 and matrix metalloproteinase 9 MMP Ghasemloo et al.
This interaction resulted fundamental to understand how to counteract neurodegeneration in PD: the study showed that the combination of the microRNA miR and CoQ10 was able to prevent the oxidative damage in dopaminergic neurons and improve motor function induced by 6-Hydroxypopamine injection by reducing matrix metalloproteinase 2,9 in an animal model.
: Antioxidant supplements for brain health| The Best Vitamins for Brain Health - Do Brain Supplements Work? | The non-enzymatic group involves glutathione GSH , abundant in brain cells, thioredoxin Trx , vitamins A, E and C, selenium, retinoic acid, carotenoids, and flavonoids. The enzymatic group includes superoxide dismutase SOD , catalase CAT , glutathione peroxidase GPx and glutathione reductase GR. In this article. For example, a cup of fresh strawberries contains about 80 mg of vitamin C, a nutrient classified as having high antioxidant activity. In very high levels, they are capable of damaging cells and genetic material. Free radical damage can change the instructions coded in a strand of DNA. An endogenous substance is produced by mitochondria in doses of about 3—5 mg per day. |
| Can Supplements Really Boost Brain Health? | FF and GS: writing—review and editing. CP: supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. Abramov, A. Interaction of misfolded proteins and mitochondria in neurodegenerative disorders. doi: PubMed Abstract CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Ahmed, N. Advanced glycation endproducts-role in pathology of diabetic complications. Diabetes Res. Alam, Z. 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Black Cumin seeds and commercial seed oils and seed oil capsules from Turkey. Ito, S. Differential effects of the ascorbyl and tocopheryl derivative on the methamphetamine-induced toxic. Behavior Toxicity Toxicol. Jiang, Q. Natural forms of vitamin E: metabolism, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities and their role in disease prevention and therapy. Free Radic Biol Med. Jiao, J. Effect of n-3 PUFA supplementation on cognitive function throughout the life span from infancy to old age: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Johri, A. Acta , — Kato, M. Effect of chlorogenic acid intake on cognitive function in the elderly: a pilot study. Based Complement. Khan, A. Attenuation of Aβ-induced neurotoxicity by thymoquinone via inhibition of mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress. Khan, F. A review of large-scale clinical trials on Ginkgo biloba found conflicting results regarding the herb's efficacy for cognitive functions. According to the review, Ginkgo biloba extract is most commonly used for cognitive decline, poor memory, and decreased alertness. While many studies included in the review found no positive effects of Ginkgo biloba , several studies showed a potential role of the herb in treating cognition in patients with mild dementia. Ginkgo biloba was most effective when used for at least 24 weeks and at a dose of milligrams mg per day. More research is needed to determine if Ginkgo biloba supplements work for brain health. Due to its perceived neuroprotective properties, ashwagandha Withania somnifera has been recommended as an herbal treatment for cognitive decline. A clinical trial from looked at how ashwagandha use would affect healthy, stressed adults. After randomization, participants took either a placebo or an ashwagandha supplement for 90 days. Taking mg of ashwagandha root extract in a sustained-release capsule form per day was found to be safe and also led to improvements in memory, focus, sleep quality, stress, and overall psychological well-being. Scientists believe that ashwagandha reduces oxidative stress in the central nervous system and, thus, may be beneficial for diseases such as Parkinson's disease , Huntington's disease , and Alzheimer's disease. Some clinical trials have supported its use for brain health, but there isn't a clear consensus on how effective ashwagandha is. In some studies, healthy caffeine consumption has been linked to better cognitive performance. Caffeine is found in various foods and drinks, with coffee being the most popular option. While a moderate dose of caffeine to mg has been shown to enhance alertness, a high dose mg or more may cause side effects like anxiety and trouble sleeping. According to one review, researchers agree that caffeine consumption improves basic cognitive functions like attention and reaction time. However, there is less of a consensus among researchers on the effects of caffeine on "higher" cognitive functions like decision-making and problem-solving. A review noted opposing results among several clinical trials on caffeine's effects on brain health. While there was not enough scientific evidence to support caffeine as an attention booster, there was evidence that caffeine improves both short-term and long-term memory in adults. Hopefully, research will continue in this area so that the role of caffeine as a nootropic will become clearer. Regarding dietary supplements, you can't always believe everything you hear. This might be especially true for supplements marketed to boost brain health. Many supplements that claim to boost brain health haven't been researched enough to support their use in everyone. Nevertheless, some researchers believe there simply isn't enough clear evidence to support using any dietary supplement for brain health. This goes for people who are healthy as well as those with dementia or other neurodegenerative diseases. For at least a few dietary supplements, there isn't strong evidence that supports their use in brain health. These include:. In general, more research is needed on the use of dietary supplements for brain health. As previously mentioned, many researchers have a hard time recommending supplements to improve your brain's health. Besides the fact that brain health supplements may not do the work as intended, they also may come with safety concerns. Recall that dietary supplements are not tested for safety or effectiveness like prescription medications are. This means that some brain health supplements may contain ingredients that either aren't listed on the nutrition label or are included in the supplement in amounts different than what is listed. When choosing a supplement , look for third-party tested products and consult a healthcare provider, registered dietitian nutritionist RD or RDN , or pharmacist. To put this into perspective, a review of 12 supplements for brain health found just one to be third-party tested and actually contain what was listed on the nutrition label. For the most part, side effects are rare but possible when taking dietary supplements. You are especially likely to experience side effects if you take too much of a supplement, so be sure to only use supplements as directed. Some people may need to avoid using brain health supplements altogether. Unless told otherwise by a healthcare provider, children and people who are pregnant or nursing may need to avoid many brain health supplements. Many supplements including those for brain health have not been thoroughly tested in these populations. Additionally, although many supplements may be generally safe, little is known about how herbs or nutrients often found in brain health supplements interact with medications you may take. Be sure to discuss any supplements you plan to take with a healthcare provider. They can help you determine if the supplement may interact with any medications or other supplements you use. Remember, dietary supplements alone cannot treat or prevent diseases. Talk with a healthcare provider for guidance on whether a brain health supplement is right for you. There are a number of other ways to keep your brain healthy that don't involve dietary supplements. The Alzheimer's Association recommends several lifestyle changes and choices to help you maintain your brain health and lower your risk of AD and other neurodegenerative diseases. In general, dietary supplements are unnecessary for any aspect of health, including brain health. Talk with a healthcare provider to learn more about how to take care of your brain. Certain supplements may help improve your brain health and reduce the risk of neurodegenerative diseases like dementia and Alzheimer's disease. However, the evidence behind the safety and efficacy of many supplements for brain health is weak or conflicting. Fortunately, there are many ways to improve the health of your brain that don't require dietary supplements. A healthcare provider can help you determine the best steps to improve your brain health. Some brain health supplements may work for some people. However, there isn't solid evidence supporting the use of most brain health supplements. Certain nutrients and nootropics like omega-3 fatty acids and caffeine have been linked to improvements in cognition in some studies. Yet, not all studies on these and other dietary supplements have yielded the same positive results. In general, more research is needed in this area. Several vitamins are necessary for brain health and function. The B vitamins thiamine , riboflavin , niacin , pantothenic acid , pyridoxine , folate , and vitamin B12 are thought to be especially important to brain function. Other vitamins that are important to brain function and health include vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin C , and vitamin A. Along with other nutrients, these vitamins are important for your brain throughout the lifecycle, from brain development to aging. Typically, you can get plenty of these nutrients through a well-balanced diet. You can read plenty of studies online. Be sure to pay special attention to the strength and quality of the studies you read. A qualified healthcare provider can also help you sift through the research to help you learn more about supplements for brain health. Whenever possible, choose reputable supplement brands that have undergone voluntary testing to ensure their nutrition labels are accurate and that no contaminants are present. World Health Organization. Marcum ZA, Hohl SD, Barthold D, Zaslavsky O, Larson EB, Gray SL. Beliefs about benefits and harms of medications and supplements for brain health. Prev Med Rep. Food and Drug Administration FDA. Questions and answers on dietary supplements. Jatoi S, Hafeez A, Riaz SU, Ali A, Ghauri MI, Zehra M. Low vitamin B12 levels: An underestimated cause of minimal cognitive impairment and dementia. Jáuregui-Lobera I. Iron deficiency and cognitive functions. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. Melzer TM, Manosso LM, Yau SY, Gil-Mohapel J, Brocardo PS. In pursuit of healthy aging: effects of nutrition on brain function. Int J Mol Sci. National Institutes of Health's Office of Dietary Supplements. Omega-3 fatty acids. Pomeroy DE, Tooley KL, Probert B, Wilson A, Kemps E. A systematic review of the effect of dietary supplements on cognitive performance in healthy young adults and military personnel. These supplements can be found in vitamin stores or online. Some animal studies have shown that acetyl-L-carnitine supplements can prevent age-related decline in brain function and increase learning capacity 45 , In humans, studies have found that it may be a useful supplement for slowing the decline in brain function due to age. Its effects in healthy people are unknown. Ginkgo biloba is an herbal supplement derived from the Ginkgo biloba tree. Despite the widespread use of ginkgo biloba, results from studies investigating its effects have been mixed. Some studies have found that taking ginkgo biloba supplements can help reduce age-related decline in brain function 54 , 55 , One study in healthy middle-aged people found that taking ginkgo biloba supplements helped improve memory and thinking skills 57 , However, not all studies have found these benefits 59 , Ginkgo biloba may help improve your short-term memory and thinking skills. It may also protect you from age-related decline in brain function. However, results are inconsistent. Bacopa monnieri is a medicine made from the herb Bacopa monnieri. People generally take about mg per day and it may take around four to six weeks for you to notice any results. Studies of Bacopa monnieri also show that it may occasionally cause diarrhea and an upset stomach. Because of this, many people recommend taking this supplement with food Bacopa monnieri has been shown to improve memory and thinking skills in healthy people and in those with a decline in brain function. Rhodiola rosea is a supplement derived from the herb Rhodiola rosea , which is often used in Chinese medicine to promote well-being and healthy brain function. People taking Rhodiola rosea have been shown to benefit from a decrease in fatigue and improvement in their brain function 72 , 73 , However, results have been mixed A recent review by the European Food Safety Authority EFSA concluded that more research is required before scientists can know if Rhodiola rosea can reduce tiredness and boost brain function Rhodiola rosea may help improve thinking skills by reducing fatigue. However, more research is needed before scientists can be certain of its effects. S-Adenosyl methionine SAMe is a substance that occurs naturally in your body. It may be useful for enhancing the effects of some antidepressants and reducing the decline in brain function seen in people who have depression 77 , 78 , More recently, a study found that, in some instances, SAMe may be as effective as some types of antidepressant medications SAMe could be useful for improving brain function in people with depression. There is no evidence it has this effect in healthy people. However, note that many brain-boosting supplements are only effective for people who have a mental condition or are deficient in the supplemented nutrient. Our experts continually monitor the health and wellness space, and we update our articles when new information becomes available. Having poor memory can be frustrating. You can use these 14 lifestyle and dietary tips to help improve your memory naturally. MindBodyGreen provides third-party-tested supplements made with high quality ingredients. Our testers and dietitians discuss whether MindBodyGreen…. Vitamins are for athletes to stay healthy. You may get all you need from the food you eat. Some athletes may benefits from vitamin supplements. Docosahexaenoic acid, or DHA, is a type of omega-3 fat that may improve many aspects of your health, from your brain to your heart. Here are 12…. Vitamins are what your body needs to function and stay healthy. It's possible to get all the vitamins you need from the food you eat, but supplements…. Vitamin K is an essential nutrient that helps with blood clotting and healthy bones. |
| Antioxidants and Brain Health | Other dietary food compounds, such as the phytochemicals in plants, are believed to have greater antioxidant effects than vitamins or minerals. All neurodegenerative disorders share several common characteristics, such as an abnormally aggregated protein accumulation and mitochondrial dysfunction that demonstrate an oxidative stress status Abramov et al. Lipid peroxidation and neurodegenerative disease. Explore more: Cognitive Health. Rodriguez-Rocha, H. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E and beta carotene for age-related cataract and vision loss: AREDS report no. Content on this website is provided for information purposes only. |
| How Do Antioxidants Lend Themselves to Brain Health? | So far the limited studies have Antioxodant no evidence Olive oil health help, with a few rare exceptions. Antioxidants disarm suppllements by team work — you suppkements a combination of nutrients not just vitamin Barin or vitamin E. List of Partners vendors. Iron deficiency and immune system function in athletes. E Iron deficiency and immune system function in athletes. also anti-inflammatory, which helps to keep DNA healthy and replicating correctly while maintaining the structure of healthy brain cell membranes, says Robin Foroutan, M. Flavonoids for memory Your mother was right when she told you to eat up your fruits and veggies. Compared to those who didn't use the herb, study participants who used Panax ginseng for long periods had higher cognition test scores later in life. Vitamin E supplements can have a blood-thinning effect and increase the risk of bleeding in people who are already taking blood-thinning medicines. |
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