Antimicrobial and antifungal properties -
Allicin diallylthiosulfinate is a defence molecule from garlic Allium sativum L. with broad antimicrobial activities in the low µM range against Gram-positive and -negative bacteria, including antibiotic resistant strains, and fungi. Allicin reacts with thiol groups and can inactivate essential enzymes.
Dimethyl-, diethyl-, diallyl-, dipropyl- and dibenzyl-thiosulfinates were synthesized and tested in vitro against bacteria and the model fungus Saccharomyces cerevisiae , human and plant cells in culture and Arabidopsis root growth.
The more volatile compounds showed significant antimicrobial properties via the gas phase. A chemogenetic screen with selected yeast mutants showed that the mode of action of the analogues was similar to that of allicin and that the glutathione pool and glutathione metabolism were of central importance for resistance against them.
Thiosulfinates differed in their effectivity against specific organisms and some were thermally more stable than allicin. These analogues could be suitable for applications in medicine and agriculture either singly or in combination with other antimicrobials.
Garlic has been used since ancient times for its health beneficial properties and modern research has provided a scientific basis for this practice 1 , 2 , 3. Garlic compounds have been shown to decrease cholesterol and fatty acid levels in the blood 4 , 5 , 6 and lower blood pressure 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ; thus, garlic consumption can contribute to the prevention of cardiovascular diseases Anti-tumour activities of garlic compounds have been demonstrated, providing for a potential use in cancer-therapy and prevention 13 , Another very important garlic property is the antimicrobial activity observed in raw garlic extract.
The main anti-bacterial compound of fresh garlic is allicin, a thiosulfinate with two allyl groups as carbon chains diallylthiosulfinate 15 , Besides bacteria, the effects of allicin have been investigated against fungi, protozoa and viruses 17 , 18 , Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus MRSA isolates were also shown to be susceptible to allicin Allicin is produced from the non-protein amino acid alliin S-allylcysteine sulfoxide upon tissue damage in a reaction that is catalyzed by the enzyme alliinase Fig.
Structurally analogous thiosulfinates are produced in nature by other Allium and Petiveria spp. Unlike conventional antibiotics, allicin is volatile and can kill bacteria via the gas phase This is particularly interesting since many lung-pathogenic bacteria are susceptible to allicin 25 , Although allicin is also toxic to human cells 27 , 28 , the successful treatment of tuberculosis by breathing in the vapour from crushed garlic preparations was reported in the pre-antibiotic era 29 , Biosynthesis of allicin from S-allyl cysteine sulfoxide alliin.
The enzyme alliinase a C-S lyase, E. catalyzes the formation of allylsulfenic acid and dehydroalanine a , whereupon two molecules of allylsulfenic acid condense spontaneously to yield one molecule of allicin b. In the laboratory, allicin can be synthesized most effectively by oxidation of diallyldisulfide DADS with H 2 O 2 in the presence of an organic acid catalyst that is first oxidized to the corresponding peroxy-acid, e.
performic acid or peracetic acid 23 , The reactivity of thiosulfinates towards thiol-groups is an important component of their antimicrobial activity 15 , 23 , 33 , The electron-withdrawing effect of the O -atom creates an electrophilic sulfur centre which reacts readily with thiols, or more specifically, with thiolate ions Fig.
Thus, many enzymes with catalytically important thiol-groups are oxidized and inhibited when exposed to allicin 33 , whilst, a few enzymes are activated upon oxidation by allicin, for instance fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase from chicken liver Reaction mechanism of a thiol with a thiosulfinate.
The reaction leads directly a , and indirectly b , to the formation of a mixed disulfide, which under some conditions may react further with RSH in a thiol disulfide exchange reaction to form RSSR and R 1 SH.
After cells were treated with 0. Furthermore, allicin reacts with low-molecular weight cellular thiols such as glutathione GSH , shifting the GSH-based cellular redox-potential to a more oxidized state.
Indeed, it was recently shown for Saccharomyces cerevisiae that treatment with allicin altered the ratio of reduced GSH and oxidized glutathione GSSG into a range that would predict induction of apoptosis and this was confirmed by cytological and genetic methods In yeast, GSH synthesis is regulated by the Yap1p transcription factor, which has oxidation-sensitive cysteines and coordinates the oxidative stress response by regulating the expression of response genes.
For example, Yap1p regulates the expression of the GSH biosynthetic genes GSH1 , GSH2 and glutathione reductase GLR1 , which utilizes NADPH to reduce GSSG to GSH.
Allicin was shown to oxidize critical cysteines in Yap1p and Δyap1 and Δglr1 mutants were shown to be hypersensitive to allicin This situation is analogous to the essential role of GSH in resistance of yeast to dipyridyl disulfide, which is also a highly specific reagent for thiol groups, showing pronounced antifungal activity Besides being redox active, allicin is also quite lipophilic.
The calculated log P value of allicin is 1. At the same time, it has been shown that allicin is able to form transient pores in artificial and in bio-membranes, which perhaps accounts for its reported synergy with membrane-active antibiotics such as amphotericin B and polymixin B Overall, this magnitude of data shows that allicin is on the way to become a well characterized natural product with potential to be used both in medicine and agriculture.
However, allicin and its derivatives have been discussed as lead compounds for new antibiotics 24 , 43 , but very little is known about the biological activities of other thiosulfinates. Nevertheless, there is some promising albeit limited data on some allicin-derivatives which have been tested as inhibitors for cysteine proteases in the parasitic protozoa Plasmodium falciparum and Trypanosoma brucei Furthermore, along with allylisothiocyanate AITC , DMTS frequently referred to as methyl methanethiosulfinate, MMTSO was described as one of the most important antimicrobial compound in cabbage plants for defence against microbial pathogens 45 , In garlic therefore, thiosulfinates other than allicin, although quantitatively more minor, may still be of considerable biological activity and interest.
In the work reported here we have synthesized a series of simple thiosulfinates, based on allicin as the lead compound, and evaluated their chemical stability and antimicrobial effectivity. We showed that some of the thiosulfinates are active as a vapour and that as little as one hour exposure to allicin vapour was inhibitory to microbial growth.
We investigated a series of yeast mutants affected in GSH metabolism and protein disulfide reduction and showed similar responses to those for allicin, suggesting a similar mode of action. We confirm that the thiosulfinate moiety is important for antimicrobial activity but that this activity is modified by the surrounding substituent groups.
The structures and the physical properties of the test substances dimethyl- DMTS , diethyl- DETS , diallyl- DATS, allicin , dipropyl- DPTS and dibenzyl- DBTS thiosulfinate are summarized in Fig.
As an indication of the relative membrane permeabilities the calculated log P values, also known as log K ow for the log of the partition coefficient between octanol and water, were calculated using the software Chemdraw Professional DBTS was immiscible with water, methanol and ethanol and decomposed in DMSO, but was found to be soluble and stable in dimethyl formamide DMF , in which it was dissolved for use in experiments see Materials and Methods.
DMTS, DETS, DATS and DPTS were sufficiently water soluble to be used in aqueous solutions. We set out to survey a range of microorganisms with respect to the effects of the thiosulfinates and based on our previous experience with allicin we chose E. coli as an example of an enteric bacterium, P.
fluorescens and P. syringae as examples of relatively allicin-resistant and allicin-susceptible strains, respectively, M.
luteus as a Gram-positive example and the Euroscarf yeast reference strain BY as a model fungus. International standard EUCAST test procedures were used to determine the minimal inhibitory concentration MIC and minimal bactericidal or fungicidal concentration MBC, MFC , respectively, for the different thiosulfinates with selected bacteria and Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
As is apparent from Table 1 , the model fungus S. Indeed, with only few exceptions, DATS was the thiosulfinate most effective against all test organisms; however, in some cases other thiosulfinates showed equal or marginally better activity in the EUCAST test procedure. Nonetheless, our data does not reveal any universal trends of antibiotic effectivity, such as a distinctive structure-activity relationship or a strong correlation between log P and activity, as may have been anticipated.
Thus, for E. Interestingly, DMTS was more active against P. Notably, most of the thiosulfinates were active in the low micromolar to low millimolar range, e. In this part of the investigation, bacteria-seeded agar was used. A bacterial suspension was mixed in the agar medium just above gelling temperature and then poured rapidly into the Petri-plate to give an even distribution of cells throughout.
The usefulness of this test for assessing antimicrobial activity of novel test substances is described in A crucial prerequisite for this assay is adequate water-solubility of the compound, so it is able to diffuse through the water-based agar-solidified medium.
Since DBTS is not water-soluble and needs to be dissolved in DMF, we could not perform the plate-inhibition zone assay with it. DMTS, DETS, DATS and DPTS showed antibiotic activity against all bacteria in this study, resulting in clear inhibition zones, the size of which was dose-dependent Fig.
Plate inhibition zone assay showing the antimicrobial activity of different thiosulfinates against various bacteria and yeast. a Representative pictures for Gram-negative bacteria E.
coli K12, Pseudomonas spp. luteus and yeast BY cells. Each test substance will diffuse into the agar from the central well and establish a concentration gradient over the time of the experiment.
Thus, each substance can be compared for relative efficacy against different test organisms, but the efficacy of the substances cannot be compared with each other because of their assumedly different diffusion rates.
A further cautionary note is, that since E. coli will also not be comparable to that in tests with the other organisms. Still, within the constraints outlined above, it can be seen that, for each given test substance, relative antibiotic effectivity differed between the different organisms exposed to them.
Therefore, considering antibacterial activity first, DMTS was most effective in this test system against P. syringae and least effective against P.
fluorescens whereas DATS was most effective against Micrococcus luteus and least effective against P. fluorescens Fig. All the thiosulfinates proved very effective against yeast BY cells and resulted in relatively large inhibition zones in comparison to those for bacteria.
This is in agreement with the results of the EUCAST procedure, which also showed yeast to be more sensitive to thiosulfinates when compared to the bacteria tested Table 1. In control plates without thiosulfinate, bacteria grew up to the edge of the well as a continuous lawn.
Thus, there was no contact between the test solution and the agar itself except by diffusion through the air. With the exception of DBTS, which was presumably not sufficiently volatile to achieve inhibitory concentrations, all thiosulfinates produced an inhibition zone above the droplet in the Petri plate lid for E.
coli , P. syringae and M. Interestingly, only DMTS, which is presumably the most volatile of the thiosulfinates under investigation, was able to inhibit P.
fluorescens via the gas phase Fig. DMTS, DETS, DATS, DPTS, but not DBTS, show antibiotic activity via the gas phase.
Thus, the agar did not come into contact with the droplet. Inhibition of growth was visible as a halo with reduced bacterial growth. It is perhaps surprising in this experiment to see such clear zones of inhibition with fairly sharp borders.
We interpret this as reflecting the concentration gradient of the thiosulfinates diffusing away from the central drop into the still air above it in the closed Petri dish, and a tight threshold inhibition concentration.
To test how much time was required for allicin to diffuse through the gas phase and achieve an inhibitory concentration at the seeded agar, a time-resolved experiment with allicin and E. coli was carried out. After a given exposure time the seeded agar plate was placed over a new lid without allicin solution and incubated overnight.
The results show that as little as one hour of exposure to allicin already leads to an effective growth inhibition of bacteria above the drop.
coli in this test dependent on exposure time, with maximum inhibition reached after only four hours exposure. In this procedure, the test substance was incorporated at a given concentration into medium kept just above gelling temperature and the plates were poured immediately. Inhibition can be seen in comparison to growth on control plates without test substance.
In the agar diffusion test, E. coli cells were inhibited by all test substances and this result demonstrates the importance of not relying on the conditions of a single test when assessing the antimicrobial effectivity of test compounds. Thus, the standard EUCAST procedure uses a low titre of cells in stationary culture, the agar diffusion test works with a concentration gradient, the drop test incorporates the substance at fixed concentrations and different cell densities are tested, whereas shake culture exposes the test cells under conditions of continuous agitation and high aeration.
Furthermore, divergent results for the different test scenarios, illustrate that only the relevant test situation in the real world clinical or agricultural situation will be definitive. In the drop tests, Gram-negative P. Here, DETS, DMTS, allicin and DBTS appeared more effective than DPTS.
This result suggests that the effect of DMTS at the test concentration is primarily bacteriostatic rather than bactericidal.
For the other thiosulfinates, both bactericidal and bacteriostatic effects were apparent and allicin and DBTS showed the highest antibacterial effects overall Fig. coli, P. luteus , respectively. As discussed already, the thiosulfinates seemed to be particularly active against the model fungus S.
This is rather fortunate, as a plethora of viable mutants of this eukaryote are available which can be used for chemogenomic profiling studies. Essentially, such studies investigate the divergent sensitivities of the wildtype and different mutants against given compounds and subsequently provide a glimpse into the possible mode s of action of those agents Therefore, this part of the study was designed to test whether the other thiosulfinates might have a similar mode of action to allicin, which is known to target the GSH pool and GSH metabolism 36 , Saccharomyces cerevisiae was used as a model fungus in drop tests on agar medium containing the test substance and in shake culture in 96 well plates see next section to assess the antimycotic activity of thiosulfinates.
The ability of wildtype wt BY cells to grow in the presence of thiosulfinates was compared with the ability of Δyap1 , Δglr1 , Δzwf1 , Δgnd1 , and Δtrx2 yeast mutants.
Yap1p is a transcription factor that coordinates the oxidative stress response in yeast 49 and which is activated by direct S -thioallylation of specific cysteines by allicin in the C-term of the protein Yap1p controls the expression of several oxidative stress response genes including GLR1 and TRX2.
Glutathione reductase Glr1p is an NADPH-dependent enzyme which reduces GSSG back to GSH and Trx2p, which is the major yeast thioredoxin, reduces protein disulfides PSSP and glutathiolated proteins PSSG back to thiols utilizing thioredoxin reductases that are NADPH-dependent The major source of NADPH for metabolic reactions in cells is the first two reactions of the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway PPP , catalysed by glucosephosphate dehydrogenase Zwf1p and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase Gnd1p , respectively.
Thus, the mutants chosen are all appropriately relevant for testing and comparing the mechanism of action of allicin in relation to GSH metabolism, with respect to the other thiosulfinates Fig.
Scheme showing how the various deletion mutants affect GSH synthesis Δyap1 and GSSG reduction, either directly Δglr1 , or by blocking the production of NADPH reducing equivalents Δzwf1 , Δgnd1 , or by supressing the NADPH-dependent reduction of protein disulfides Δtrx2 , indirectly Δzwf1 , Δgnd1.
Dotted lines show the metabolic lesions caused by the deletion mutants. However, see Fig. Drop test of S. The wt BY was compared with the Δyap1 and other mutants.
The effects of the various thiosulfinates are shown in the remaining panels. a CSM alone control ; b DMTS; c DETS; d DATS allicin ; e DPTS. The experiments were repeated twice with similar results. Effect of DBTS on the growth in CSM of wt BY and Δyap1 , Δglr1 , Δzwf1 , Δgnd1 , and Δtrx2 mutant yeast cells in CSM and the synergistic effect of DMF with allicin.
a , b are controls in the absence and presence of 0. These findings, albeit of a preliminary nature, are rather intriguing as they a confirm the considerable toxicity of the various thiosulfinates towards yeast and perhaps fungi in general, b support the overall impression that allicin, DPTS and DBTS are more active compared to the shorter chain analogues and c also point towards similar underlying mode s of action against which GSH metabolism plays an important role.
As mentioned in the introduction, induction of oxidative stress is probably just one aspect of antimicrobial activity, and it would not be surprising if some of the test compounds had additional mechanisms.
For instance, highly toxic benzylthiol may be formed as part of DBTS intracellular redox transformations. As is apparent from the results of the antimicrobial assays described so far, the relative sensitivity of an organism to an antibiotic is test-dependent and threshold inhibitory concentrations can vary depending on the conditions.
Furthermore, the ability of a particular test to resolve different sensitivities between isolates also varies. Therefore, the effects of thiosulfinates on wt and Δyap1 , Δglr1 , Δzwf1 , Δgnd1 , and Δtrx2 yeast mutants were also investigated in shake culture because this has the additional advantage of providing relative growth kinetics and not just an end-point result In contrast to the stationary culture conditions in the MIC and MBC tests, or in drop tests where cells are plated onto medium containing the test substance, in shake culture cells tend to grow more robustly and generally tolerate higher concentrations of antibiotics.
Figure 10a shows a representative plot chosen from 4 replicates. Growth of all of the mutants was completely inhibited up to the end of the experiment Fig.
This might be coupled with the relative ease with which the compounds can traverse the membrane to gain access to the cells. This activity series can also be seen in the drop test, but the increased sensitivity of the mutants to DPTS compared to the wt was not resolved Fig.
Because DBTS is insoluble in water, it was dissolved in dimethyl formamide DMF which was present at 0. DMF at this concentration showed no significant effect on growth of either the wt or the mutants in comparison to the CSM controls Fig.
This very high degree of inhibition compared to the other thiosulfinates, suggests that DBTS had the greatest activity of the thiosulfinate series against Saccharomyces cerevisiae , a result which corresponds to the drop test results shown in Fig.
Yet this result must be viewed with caution. Whilst DMF alone had no effect on cell growth, there was most likely also a synergistic effect between DBTS and DMF. These findings caution against the often naïve use of common solvents such as DMF or DMSO to enhance the solubility of refractory test substances.
To sum up the results of the chemogenetic profiling, the observation that the chosen mutants were generally more sensitive to thiosulfinates than the wt suggests that the other thiosulfinates are probably acting similarly to allicin and targeting the cellular GSH pool and GSH metabolism as well as resulting in protein thiol oxidation 3 , 20 , 36 , The strongly susceptible phenotype of the Δglr1 mutant in comparison to the weaker susceptibility of the Δtrx2 mutant is particularly informative in this regard.
The importance of Zwf1p and Gnd1p activities is clear because these enzymes are the major source of NADPH to provide reducing potential needed for Glr1p to reduce GSSG, and Trx2p activity via NADPH-dependent thioredoxin reductases.
If an antibiotic is to be used in the treatment of patients, then the differential susceptibility of mammalian cells and target pathogen cells should be as high as possible.
Allicin is a biocide and kills mammalian cells as well as bacteria and fungi in a dose-dependent manner. The effects of allicin on a range of mammalian cell lines has been investigated 29 , but the mammalian cell toxicity of the other thiosulfinates is unknown.
In the work reported here, an MTT test for cell viability with human alveolar basal epithelial adenocarcinoma A cells was performed. However, because allicin reduces the adherence of cultured cells, and this leads to variable losses during the usual washing procedure, any unreacted thiosulfinate was titrated out by adding excess cysteine.
Cysteine itself, added to medium without cells, did not lead to a reduction of MTT. All the thiosulfinates caused a dose-dependent decrease in the viability of cultured human A cells, pivotal over the 0. There was some variation in the relative activities of different thiosulfinates but these were not consistently statistically significant between experiments.
Nevertheless, the tendency that DMTS was least toxic and allicin most toxic to A cells was a clearly visible trend in all the experiments and the data confirm that the analogues are of similar toxicity to allicin.
Therefore, like allicin, because of a relatively low differential toxicity between bacteria and mammalian cells, thiosulfinates might be better used at low concentration in combination with other clinically proven antibiotics, for example against MDR strains where allicin has generally been shown to be effective Because thiosulfinates are titrated out by GSH, oral use is in any case likely to be precluded because it will not be possible to achieve therapeutic concentrations via the oral route In this regard, specialist applications must be considered.
Thus, the shortage of volatile antibiotics, coupled with reports from the pre-antibiotic era of successful treatment of tuberculosis patients by garlic vapour inhalation 29 , 30 , indicate such a potential and emphasize the fact that cells in suspension culture do not have the same environment as cells in the body.
In the intact organism, with a circulating blood supply and continual replenishment of GSH, particularly in the lungs which are continually exposed to oxidative stress, the volatile thiosulfinates may be able to play a role against lung-pathogenic organisms via the direct pulmonary route, either alone or in combination with conventional antibiotics taken orally This important point needs addressing in the future in long-term animal studies, which are beyond the scope of the present study.
Dose-dependent effect of thiosulfinates on the viability of cultured human A cells. We have previously shown that although allicin traverses biological and artificial membranes easily 41 , it does not penetrate the wax plates of the plant cuticle efficiently and when sprayed onto leaves up to 2.
Furthermore, allicin was shown to be as effective as the commercial fungicide Aatiram ® in sanitizing carrot seed infested with Alternaria spp. and may be suitable for controlling other seed-borne diseases Plant toxicity data for the other thiosulfinates is lacking, therefore we tested the effect of a one hour exposure to thiosulfinates on the viability of tobacco bright yellow 2 BY-2 cell cultures 53 , and the effect on Arabidopsis root growth.
Evans Blue was used to stain dead BY-2 cells 54 and the trend observed with A adenocarcinoma cells, that DMTS was least toxic and DATS most toxic, was clearly reiterated Fig. Effect of thiosulfinates on the viability of tobacco BY-2 cells in shake culture. Cells were exposed to the stated thiosulfinate concentration for one hour, stained with Evans blue, and bound dye measured at A We also compared the effect of thiosulfinates on the growth of Arabidopsis seedling roots.
Seeds were allowed to germinate for three days before placing on medium containing thiosulfinate. Root length was measured after three days of continual exposure.
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In: Egamberdieva, D. eds Medically Important Plant Biomes: Source of Secondary Metabolites. Microorganisms for Sustainability, vol Springer, Singapore.
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Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Policies and ethics. Skip to main content. Abstract There is evidence of medicinal plants having been used in the treatment of human disease caused by various pathogenic microorganisms in many countries of the world.
Keywords Medicinal plants Antibacterial Antifungal Bioactive compounds. Buying options Chapter EUR eBook EUR Softcover Book EUR Hardcover Book EUR Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout Purchases are for personal use only Learn about institutional subscriptions. References Adam SIY, Ahmed AYA, Omer AKM, Bashir AMA, Abdel Rahman OAM, Abdelgadir WS In vitro antimicrobial activity of Rosmarinus officinalis leave extracts.
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KACST, Riyadh, pp 75—80 Google Scholar Al-Zoreky NS Antimicrobial activity of pomegranate Punica granatum L. Kalemba D. and Kunicka A. Recent Advances in the Application of Marine Natural Products as Antimicrobial Agents. Antibacterial and Antifungal Properties of Essential Oils Author s : D. Kunicka Volume 10, Issue 10, Page: [ - ] Pages: 17 DOI: Purchase PDF.
Mark Item. Current Medicinal Chemistry. Title: Antibacterial and Antifungal Properties of Essential Oils Volume: 10 Issue: 10 Author s : D. Kalemba and A. Kunicka Affiliation: Keywords: essential oils , monoterpenes , antibacterial activity , antifungal activity , dilution method Abstract: In recent years there has been an increasing interest in the use of natural substances, and some questions concerning the safety of synthetic compounds have encouraged more detailed studies of plant resources.
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Citation and Abstract. About this article ×. Cite this article as: Kalemba D. Close About this journal. Related Journals Anti-Cancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry. Current Analytical Chemistry.
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Pproperties work Antimicrobial and antifungal properties Macronutrients and bone health evaluate the antimicrobial potential of ethanolic propefties water extracts propegties roselle Hibiscus sabdariffa Antimicrboial, Antimicrobial and antifungal properties Rosmarinus officinalisclove Syzygium aromaticum antitungal, and thyme Thymus vulgaris on some Antimicrobial and antifungal properties pathogens and spoilage microorganisms. Antimicrobal well diffusion method has been used propertiws determine the antimicrobial activities and minimum inhibitory ahtifungal MIC propertis different plant extracts Onion production process Gram-positive bacteria Antimicorbial cereus, Antimicrobial and antifungal properties aureusGram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli, Salmonella enteritidis, Vibrio parahaemolyticusand Pseudomonas aeruginosaand one fungus Candida albicans. The extracts exhibited both antibacterial and antifungal activities against tested microorganisms. Only the ethanolic extracts of clove and thyme showed antifungal effects against CA with inhibition zones ranging from Bacillus cereus BC appears to be the most sensitive strain to the aqueous extract of clove with a MIC of 0. To enhance our understanding of antimicrobial activity mechanism of plant extracts, the changes in internal pH pH intand membrane potential were measured in Staphylococcus aureus SA and Escherichia coli EC cells after exposure to the plant extracts. The results indicated that the plant extracts significantly affected the cell membrane of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, as demonstrated by the decline in pH int as well as cell membrane hyperpolarization. An antimicrobial Amtimicrobial an agent that kills microorganisms microbicide or Antimicrobial and antifungal properties their growth bacteriostatic agent. Propertied example, antibiotics are used against bacteria AAntimicrobial, and Antimicrobial and antifungal properties are used against fungi. They Antimcirobial also Metformin for PCOS classified according Joint support supplements their function. Antivungal use of antimicrobial medicines to treat infection is known as antimicrobial chemotherapywhile the use of antitungal medicines to prevent infection is known as antimicrobial prophylaxis. The main classes of antimicrobial agents are disinfectants non-selective agents, such as bleachwhich kill a wide range of microbes on non-living surfaces to prevent the spread of illness, antiseptics which are applied to living tissue and help reduce infection during surgeryand antibiotics which destroy microorganisms within the body.
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