The estimation of macronutrients consumption was made by 3 day food register regarding food intake. Cytokines and metabolic variables values were similar between the groups. Only in the male group, metabolic variables and cytokines were significant correlated with the consumption of total lipids or its fractions.

Conclusions: macronutrients intake is associated with low-grade inflammation in obesity, by production of inflammatory cytokines and alteration of the lipid profile, especially male obese adolescents which seem to be more responsive of this consumption when compared with female obese adolescents.

Palabras clave : Carbohydrates; Lipids; MUFA; PUFA; Diet; Cytokine. Todo el contenido de esta revista, excepto dónde está identificado, está bajo una Licencia Creative Commons.

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Citado por SciELO Accesos. Overall, our findings indicate that test meal composition is an important parameter that can help reveal obesity-related alterations in immune function in relationship to metabolic function. NFκB is a pro-inflammatory transcription factor, and its increase in the nucleus characterises inflammation at the cellular level.

In this study, we showed that expression of pro-inflammatory genes regulated by NFκB, such as TNFα, was increased in obese subjects, indicating increased NFκB transcriptional activity and binding.

TNFα gene expression exhibited similar meal-specific responses in the OIR and LIS group. In addition, we showed that anti-inflammatory genes, such as TGFβ, were downregulated in the OIR group compared to the LIS group. Although we cannot make any causal inferences, our observations support the idea that obesity-related insulin resistance is associated with inflammation, which can be reliably assessed by evaluating MNC gene expression.

Importantly, however, manifestation of altered immunometabolic function in obesity varies in response to ingestion of meals with different macronutrient composition. Mohanty and colleagues showed that a single HP meal rich in casein increases generation of reactive oxygen species in MNC and neutrophils in healthy overweight individuals [ 30 ].

To our knowledge, there is no previous study that compared the inflammatory responses in MNC after a single HP meal compared to HC or HF meals. In this study, we showed that a single HP meal induces an overall higher gene expression of p compared to the HF or HC meals.

Amino acids are thought to be sensed by mammalian target of rapamycin mTOR which is an important checkpoint kinase. Activation of the mTOR pathway can induce the unfolded-protein response UPR and consequently activate the JUN N-terminal kinase JNK which can lead to an increased inflammatory response [ 7 ].

We observed that postprandial responses for IL-6 both at the gene expression level and plasma concentrations were greater in the LIS compared to the OIR group, especially following the HC meal. This observation is intriguing and is consistent with a previous study in overweight children using Ensure® enteral supplement as the test meal [ 31 ].

The authors showed that fasting plasma IL-6 concentration is positively correlated with insulin sensitivity, suggesting that IL-6 may have a protective rather than a detrimental effect on insulin sensitivity [ 31 ].

In fact, in lean subjects, acute IL-6 infusion during hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic conditions enhanced insulin-stimulated glucose disposal [ 32 ]. An acute IL-6 exposure has also been shown to inhibit TNFα production [ 33 ], suggesting a reciprocal relationship between IL-6 and TNFα in modulating insulin sensitivity.

We found positive correlations between TNFα and IL-6 gene expression in both the fasting and the postprandial states in the LIS, but not in the OIR group Table 2. This notion is supported by the trend for a reduction in postprandial plasma TNFα concentrations in the LIS group but not in the OIR group.

It has been suggested that a decrease in postprandial plasma TNFα concentration in the lean and overweight but insulin-sensitive individuals [ 31 , 34 ] minimizes interference with insulin signaling and therefore facilitates insulin-mediated nutrient uptake after a meal consumption.

In our experimental setting, this physiologic response was impaired in OIR subjects, which supports the idea that immunometabolic adaptation, i. Strengths of this study include the recruitment of a population of two distinct metabolic phenotypes, which were otherwise homogeneous.

Moreover, we administered 3 isocaloric meals in random order which allowed an unbiased comparison between test meals of different macronutrient composition. This study also has some limitations that should be kept in mind when interpreting our results.

We only recruited men, so we cannot ascertain whether similar results would be obtained in women. Future studies in women have to be performed taking into account the possible influence of the menstrual cycle on immunometabolic responses.

In addition, our sample size was relatively small, but significant differences between groups were still detected, and we believe a larger sample size would only accentuate our results.

Still, we only assessed the responses to a single meal, so it is not known if our results would be affected by long-term consumption of diets rich in different macronutrients.

In conclusion, we found that obesity-associated alterations in the immunometabolic response to a mixed meal depend on macronutrient composition, being more pronounced after a HC meal but not after a HP or a HF meal.

These changes occurred alongside changes in NFκB gene expression in MNC. Our findings provide new insights into the complex interactions between inflammatory processes and underlying metabolic abnormalities in obesity, and highlight the potential importance of nutritional strategies that could be used to prevent unfavourable immunometabolic responses.

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Statistics notes: Calculating correlation coefficients with repeated observations: Part 1—correlation within subjects. Calculating correlation coefficients with repeated observations: Part 2—correlation between subjects.

Nilsson M, Stenberg M, Frid AH, Holst JJ, Bjorck IM. Glycemia and insulinemia in healthy subjects after lactose-equivalent meals of milk and other food proteins: the role of plasma amino acids and incretins. Peairs AD, Rankin JW, Lee YW. Effects of acute ingestion of different fats on oxidative stress and inflammation in overweight and obese adults.

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Mohanty P, Ghanim H, Hamouda W, Aljada A, Garg R, Dandona P. Both lipid and protein intakes stimulate increased generation of reactive oxygen species by polymorphonuclear leukocytes and mononuclear cells.

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Download references. AVP and SV are funded by BHF. EPR and SB had equal contribution to the study execution, acquisition, analyses and interpretation of data, and manuscript preparation. SB performed the gene expression assay. SB, MS, and YT carried out the ELISA experiments.

EPR, TPL, SB, and SFM contributed to the grant proposal. TPL, SFM, EST, FM, SV and TVP contributed to critical revision of the manuscript. CMK and SAT contributed to the conception and design of the work and interpretation of data and critically revised the manuscript.

EPR, SB, and SAT are the guarantors of this work, and as such, had full access to the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. All procedures and study-related activities were conducted in accordance with the Singapore Good Clinical Practice guideline and principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.

Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects prior to participation in this study. Department of Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 14 Medical Drive, , Singapore, Singapore. Ehsan Parvaresh Rizi, Sonia Baig, Muhammad Shabeer, Yvonne Teo, E.

Department of Medicine, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore. Ehsan Parvaresh Rizi, Shao Feng Mok, E. Department of Laboratory Medicine, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore.

Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore. University of Cambridge Metabolic Research Laboratories, Cambridge, UK. DUKE-National University of Singapore Medical School, Singapore, Singapore.

Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, USA. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Sue-Anne Toh. Macronutrient composition of the 3 different liquid mixed meals. Table S2. Baseline MNC gene expression and plasma cytokine concentrations.

Table S3. Fold changes in MNC gene expression at 2 h and 6 h in lean and obese subjects after consuming 3 meals with different macronutrient composition. Table S4. Changes in plasma concentration of cytokines at 2 h and 6 h in lean and obese subjects after consuming 3 meals with different macronutrient composition.

Table S5. Fasting and postprandial plasma concentration of cytokines in lean and obese subjects after consuming 3 meals with different macronutrient composition. DOCX 57 kb. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.

Reprints and permissions. Parvaresh Rizi, E. et al. Meal rich in carbohydrate, but not protein or fat, reveals adverse immunometabolic responses associated with obesity. Nutr J 15 , Download citation. Received : 21 August Accepted : 24 November Published : 01 December Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:.

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Not all macronutrients are the same and some of them may show opposite effects. For instance, consumption of a high-fat meal together with vegetable foods rich in natural antioxidants largely prevents the negative effects on endothelial function.

A mild pro-oxidative state accompanies meal ingestion, which results in raised circulating biomarkers of inflammation, adhesion, and endothelial dysfunction, all of which are factors in the development of cardiovascular disease. The process is supposed to involve increased superoxide generation, which in turn inactivates nitric oxide.

Superoxide and nitric oxide combine to produce peroxynitrite, a potent and long-lived oxidant that is cytotoxic, initiates lipid peroxidation, and nitrates amino acids such as tyrosine, which affects many signal transduction pathways.

The production of the peroxynitrite anion can be indirectly inferred by the presence of nitrotyrosine NT. An increase in plasma NT levels has been reported in association with post-prandial hyperglycaemia or hypertriglycidaemia, with a cumulative effect occurring in the presence of both conditions.

It can be presumed that what happens during the absorption phase is of considerable importance, because it occurs several times every day, and human beings now spend an increasingly greater part of their lives in the post-prandial phase.

Macronutrient intake may produce oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. Glucose ingestion in normal subjects is associated with increased superoxide generation in leukocytes and mononuclear cells, as well as with raised amount and activity of nuclear factor-κB NF-κB , a transcriptional factor regulating the activity of at least genes, most of which are pro-inflammatory.

A mixed meal from a fast-food chain has also been shown to induce activation of NF-κB associated with the generation of reactive oxygen species ROS by mononuclear cells. Interestingly enough, superoxide is an activator of at least two major pro-inflammatory transcription factors, NF-κB and AP These findings are in line with previous studies demonstrating that after oral or intravenous glucose challenges, in both normal subjects and patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, there is an increased generation of ROS and raised circulating levels of inflammatory cytokines, such as tumour necrosis factor-α TNF-α , interleukin 6 IL-6 , and interleukin 18 IL A single high-fat meal in normal subjects produces endothelial activation, as evidenced by increased concentrations of the adhesion molecules VCAM-1 vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 and ICAM-1 intercellular adhesion molecule-1 , in association with raised plasma concentrations of IL-6 and TNF-α.

Ingestion of particular macronutrients causes a shift towards oxidative stress and inflammation, which in turn may reduce insulin sensitivity. Metabolic abnormalities found in diabetes, obesity, and the metabolic syndrome include, among others, increases in the circulating levels of metabolites, such as FFA and triglycerides, and cytokines, such as TNF-α and IL Both FFA and inflammatory markers have been shown to predict type 2 diabetes independent of known risk factors.

IRS-1 may be directly phosphorylated by IKKβ at serine residues, representing a novel class of substrates for IKKβ. This causes insulin resistance both locally in liver and systemically. IL-6 circulates in plasma at high concentrations and is associated with insulin resistance in men and in obese or hyperandrogenic women.

In contrast to IL-6 and TNF-α, adiponectin mRNA is reduced in adipose tissue from patients with type 2 diabetes. Part of this effect may be mediated through modification of circulating FFA levels.

Resistance to the anti-inflammatory actions of insulin might also play a role. At physiologically relevant concentrations, insulin causes a suppression of NF-κB, thus reducing the production of some of its transcripts, namely IL-6 and TNF-α. The raised flux of nutrients in the post-prandial state is associated with an increase in circulating levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, recruitment of netrophils, and oxidative stress.

As stated before, the generation of ROS may be a common ground for all these findings and may help understanding current dietetic recommendations emphasizing increased consumption of fruits, vegetables, and fibre, which contain a myriad of natural antioxidants that help fighting the oxidant wave of meals.

Moreover, reducing trans - and saturated fatty acids intake and increasing the consumption of omega-3 fatty acids are also considered important strategies to reduce coronary heart disease CHD risk. As oxidative processes are supposed to play a key role in the development of atherosclerosis, antioxidant—vitamin supplementation has been proposed for the treatment and prevention of chronic diseases, including coronary disease.

The encouraging results of short-term trials in participants with coronary atherosclerosis 34 were not confirmed in large-size intervention trials. More recently, Miller et al. Overall, being randomly assigned to receive vitamin E had no effect, either positive or negative.

Thus, it may be wrong to focus on a single element of the diet; guidelines from some professional or governmental panels recommend attempting to obtain vitamins and minerals from food sources rather than from supplements. Recent epidemiological data support an important role of diet in reducing overall mortality.

In particular, Knoops et al. Taken together, the combination was associated with a mortality rate of about one-third that of those with none or only one of these protective factors.

The two main intervention trials using the whole diet approach so far produced are also in line with this epidemiological evidence. Singh et al. When compared with the control diet, the intervention diet—characterized by increased intake of mustard or soyabean oil, nuts, vegetables, fruits, and whole grains—reduced the rate of fatal myocardial infarction by one-third and the rate of sudden death from cardiac causes by two-thirds.

Esposito et al. The authors randomized patients 99 men, 81 women with the metabolic syndrome to a Mediterranean-style diet instructions about increasing daily consumption of whole grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and olive oil vs.

Physical activity increased equally in both groups. After 2 years, patients on the Mediterranean diet showed greater weight loss, had lower C-reactive protein and pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, had less insulin resistance, had lower total cholesterol and triglyceride and higher HDL-cholesterol levels, and had a decreased prevalence of the metabolic syndrome, which was reduced approximately by one-half.

These results suggest possible mechanisms for the beneficial effects of a Mediterranean-style diet. The clustering atherogenic and diabetogenic abnormalities of the metabolic syndrome are highly prevalent in our affluent, sedentary populations.

Adipose tissue excess, particularly in the visceral compartment, is widely acknowledged as an endocrine organ secreting an increasing number of mediators, including pro-inflammatory cytokines. Although the evidence is still lacking, the Quebec Family Study has shown that a decrease in the consumption of fat-foods or an increase in consumption of whole fruits predicted a lower increase in body weight and adiposity indicators over a 6-year follow-up.

Given that the metabolic syndrome is an identifiable and potentially modifiable risk state for both type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease, adopting a dietary pattern as that used in the study of Esposito et al. Increased consumption of high-density and low-quality foods, such as those rich in refined starches, sugar, and unhealthy lipids saturated and trans -fatty acids and poor in natural antioxidants and fibre, may cause an activation of the innate immune system, most likely by an excessive production of pro-inflammatory cytokines associated with a reduced production of anti-inflammatory cytokines Figure 1.

This imbalance may favour the generation of a pro-inflammatory milieu, which in turn may produce insulin resistance in the peripheral tissues and endothelial dysfunction at the vascular level, and ultimately predispose susceptible people to an increased incidence of the metabolic syndrome and diabetes.

The change in dietary patterns that occurred in recent years has introduced the consumption of a larger amount of foods that seem faster in preparation and in producing health damage.

The recent findings from the prospective US CARDIA Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults study show that frequent fast-food consumption is associated with weight gain and risk of insulin resistance over 15 years. Inflammatory mechanisms appear to be important for mediating both metabolic insulin resistance and impaired insulin action in vascular endothelium that contribute to the relationship between metabolic and cardiovascular disorders.

This has implications for novel therapeutic strategies because drugs that reduce inflammation would be predicted to improve both metabolic and endothelial functions. Indeed, recent clinical studies have demonstrated additive beneficial endothelial and metabolic effects of combining statins with angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockers in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Fast-food habits seem to warm up inflammation, whereas slow-food habits cool it down. Figure 1 Dietary patterns high in refined starches, sugar, and lipids and poor in natural antioxidants and fibre may produce an inflammatory milieu characterized by raised ROS generation and unbalance between inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines.

The risk of metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and atherosclerosis is ultimately increased by the separate or combined effects of inflammation, insulin resistance, and visceral obesity.

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Nappo F, Esposito K, Cioffi M, Giugliano G, Molinari AM, Paolisso G, Marfella R, Giugliano D. Postprandial endothelial activation in healthy subjects and in type 2 diabetic patients: role of fat and carbohydrate meals. J Am Coll Cardiol ; 39 : — Ceriello A, Taboga C, Tonutti L, Quagliaro L, Piconi L, Bais B, Da Ros R, Motz E.

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Ceriello A, Quagliaro L, Catone B, Pascon R, Piazzola M, Bais B, Marra G, Tonutti L, Toboga C, Motz E. The role of hyperglycaemia in nitrotyrosine postprandial generation. Diab Care ; 25 : — Esposito K, Nappo F, Giugliano F, Di Palo C, Ciotola M, Barbieri M, Paolisso G, Giugliano D.

Meal modulation of circulating interleukin 18 and adiponectin concentrations in healthy subjects and in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Clin Nutr ; 78 : — Tataranni PA, Ortega E. A burning question. Does an adipokine-induced activation of the immune system mediate the effect of overnutrition on type 2 diabetes?

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ISSN Additionally, high consumption of saturated fatty acids SFA and high glycemic index meals may contribute to oxidative stress and chronic low-grade inflammation by increases NF-kB activation. Thus, the aim of the study was to analyze the contribution of the macronutrients intake in the metabolic and inflammatory profile, by levels of lipoproteins, insulin resistance, anti and pro inflammatory cytokines, in obese adolescents according the gender.

Methods: sample was composed by 37 adolescents, both genders, identified as obese by body mass index BMI.

Body composition was assessed by Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry DEXA and measures of intra-abdominal adiposity IAAT and subcutaneous adiposity tissue SAT were done by ultrasound.

Biochemical analyses were done and the measurement of cytokines; fatty acids and insulin were performed by the technique of immunoassay ELISA. The estimation of macronutrients consumption was made by 3 day food register regarding food intake.

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Learn about our graduate medical education residency and fellowship opportunities. Macronutrients are the cornerstones of your diet. Learn more about where to get them, how much of them you need and what sources to avoid. Many eating plans focus on changing the amount of carbohydrate, fat or protein in your diet.

Carbohydrates , fat and protein are called macronutrients. They are the nutrients you use in the largest amounts.

No healthy diet should exclude or seriously restrict any macronutrient. Here is how much of each you should eat as part of a healthy diet , and the best sources. They provide energy for your muscles and the central nervous system during movement and exercise.

Protein is essential to many processes in the body. It provides structure to the tissue. That includes cell membranes, organs, muscle, hair, skin, nails, bones, tendons, ligaments and blood plasma.

Proteins are involved in metabolic, hormonal and enzyme systems and help maintain acid-base balance in our bodies. The Recommended Dietary Allowance is 0. For a person who weighs pounds, that adds up to around 54 grams of protein per day.

Individual needs will vary depending on age, activity level, medical conditions and health goals. Fat is vital for the body as an energy reserve, for insulation and protection of your organs, and for absorption and transport of fat-soluble vitamins.

It can be hard to visualize the recommended daily amounts of macronutrients as meals. One way to do this and make sure you get a good variety of foods is to follow a plant-based diet. Now that we know a little about the simple fact of processed and refined foods may be the main cause of inflammation, here are some foods that are anti-inflammatory and can help reduce whole-body inflammation such as:.

Stay connected with our bi-weekly blogs and social media channels to learn more about ways you can reduce inflammation, track your macronutrients, start a healthy diet, and live a sustainable lifestyle by taking charge of your own health and learning how your specific body operates.

You can always send us an email with any questions you may have and our nutrition coaches will be more than happy to help guide you in the right direction and support you on your journey.

Mother of Macros is not a medical professional nor is it medical advice. Please always consult with your doctor. In the journey to shed those extra pounds, understanding the role of macronutrients macros is paramount.

This blog will guide In the journey to shed those extra pounds, understanding the In today's fast-paced world, finding time to prepare healthy meals can be a challenge. How to lose weight is one In today's fast-paced world, finding time to prepare healthy meals Did you know that research has demonstrated just 20 minutes of exercise has the ability to alter our genes for Did you know that research has demonstrated just 20 minutes Your cart is empty Continue shopping Have an account?

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