Antioxidants for protecting against environmental pollutants -
Superoxide dismutases are metalloenzymes which are found in the cytosol and the mitochondrial intermembrane Copper, Zinc-SOD , the mitochondrial matrix and inner membrane Manganesse-SOD , and extracellular compartment Copper, Zinc-SOD Rosa et al.
Catalase converts H 2 O 2 to less toxic gaseous oxygen O 2 and water Fujiki and Bassik, On the other hand, GPx transforms H 2 O 2 to O 2 and water Ighodaro and Akinloye, ; Irato and Santovito, Furthermore, GPx promotes the conversion of peroxide radicals to alcohol by oxidizing the reduced glutathione GSH to oxidized glutathione GSSG Ighodaro and Akinloye, Glutathione reductase promotes the conversion of GSSG to GSH in order to replenish the pool of GSH in the living cells Radwan et al.
While GSTs are phase II enzymes that are involved in the conjugation of electrophilic components to glutathione and in the protection from oxidative effects and peroxidative products of lipids or DNA Strange et al.
Vitamin C is a water-soluble micronutrient ,that is, abundant in natural rich sources such as fresh fruits and green leafy vegetables Devaki and Raveendran, Vitamin C is a powerful reducing agent and a broad-spectrum antioxidant that fights a wide range of free radicals, including ROS Malik et al.
Vitamin C is involved in the first line of antioxidant defense acting as an excellent donor of electrons for free radicals that need electrons to regain their stability Zhitkovich, As a result, vitamin C quenches their reactivity and shields the cellular components from free radical-induced cellular damage.
Vitamin C also aids in the regeneration of the antioxidant form of vitamin E by decreasing the tocopheroxyl radicals Shakeri et al. Vitamin C comes from plant, thus if plants are not protected from the ravages of oxidative stress, the biochemical and physiological roles of this pivotal antioxidant may be abrogated with wide range health consequences.
Vitamin E tocopherol is a lipid soluble micronutrient. Natural forms of vitamin E can be obtained from plant seeds, fruits, vegetables and nuts Chun et al. All vitamin E forms are potent antioxidants because they possess similar phenolic moieties; they scavenge lipid peroxyl radicals by donating hydrogen from the phenolic group on the chromanol ring Jiang, ; Niki and Noguchi, Vitamin E functions as a chain-breaking antioxidant that protects cellular membranes against ROS Traber and Jeffrey, If plants are not protected from the effects of oxidative stress, the biochemical and physiological functions of this important antioxidant may be compromised, resulting in a variety of health problems.
Beta-carotene is a fat-soluble natural pigment primarily found in plants where it is abundant in orange and yellow fruits such as carrots and mangoes as well as green leafy vegetables such as pumpkins Durante et al.
Beta-carotene acts as antioxidant by effectively neutralising ROS by reducing their propagation, quenching singlet oxygen and preventing cellular damage thereby, decreasing oxidative stress and oxidative damage to DNA Bahonar et al.
Selenium is another micronutrient whose availability in foods depends largely on Se content in the soil where plants grow Hu et al. Nuts, cereals, grains, cruciferous vegetables, garlic, onions as well as eggs, fish, meat and meat products are very rich in Se Hu et al.
Selenium is involved in antioxidant function Burk and Hill, As a fundamental part of GPX and other enzymes, the main antioxidant role of Se is due to the activities of the seleno-enzymes and avoidance toxicity by selenoproteins Gaetke, ; Burk and Hill, Zinc is an essential micronutrient that has richest food sources as oysters and meat such as beef, veal, pork and lamb Jun and Betts, Zinc has antioxidant properties that are based on a variety of mechanisms Prasad, Zinc also promotes the production of metallothionein, a cysteine-rich protein, that is, an effective ̇OH scavenger.
Zinc protects bio-molecules from oxidation by binding to their sulfhydryl groups, promotes the activation of antioxidant proteins, molecules and enzymes such as GSH, CAT, and SOD, while inhibiting the activity of oxidant-promoting enzymes such inducible nitric acid synthase and NADPH oxidase Prasad, Zinc regulates the activity of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 Nrf2 ; a key transcription factor that controls the gene expression of antioxidant proteins and enzymes such as GSH and SOD, as well as detoxifying enzymes such as GST, by binding to an antioxidant responsive element in the promoter region of the target gene Prasad, Thus, up-regulating Nrf2 activity and down-regulating the generation of ROS Prasad, Environmental pollution from various sources such as air, water and soil, has an overarching effect on human health.
Several studies have discovered a strong link between air pollutants and respiratory diseases, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, bronchitis symptoms and lung cancer Nhung et al.
Air pollutants have also been associated to cardiovascular diseases such as heart failure, myocardial infarction, strokes and arrhythmias as well as increased mortality Shah et al.
Exposure to air pollutants has been linked to type 2 diabetes Janghorbani et al. The leading causes of water pollution include anthropogenic sources such as untreated industrial effluents, inappropriate waste disposal and agricultural run-offs.
Consuming polluted water poses a significant health risk such as high incidence of water-borne infections leading to the death of the organism. For example, contaminating water supplies with pesticides has deleterious impacts on ecosystems as well as humans as these pesticides act as possible mutagens causing DNA alterations Hassaan et al.
About 1,, people are poisoned acutely because of pesticide exposure with a death rate of 0. Paraquat, a hazardous fast-acting herbicide, is a notable example Chang et al.
Furthermore, long-term exposure to lower pesticide concentrations has been linked to syndromes encompassing various cancers and neurological disorders Owens et al.
Soil offers a foundation for plants to grow. Soil pollutants such as toxic metals, have a tendency to bio-accumulate in plants tissues altering their normal physiology and growth with negative consequences on the animals and humans who rely on them for food Seiyaboh and Izah, As a result, there is a considerable risk of soil pollutants entering the food chain as toxins.
Food toxins can enter the human body and cause a variety of disorders affecting the reproductive, respiratory, neurological, and digestive systems, as well as poisoning of organs such as the liver and kidney Seiyaboh and Izah, Nutrigenomics refers to the study of the impact of specific nutrients, dietary components or entire diet on gene expression and gene regulation Patil et al.
Although many perspectives of molecular basis of chronic diseases such as metabolomics, nutrigenomics, transcriptomics are emerging and being pursued, nutrigenomics is currently the most important and widely applied Rodrigues-Costa et al.
The fundamental concepts of the field of nutrigenomics are that the progression from a healthy phenotype to a chronic disease phenotype must occur by charges in genes expression or by differences in activities of proteins and enzymes and that dietary chemicals nutrients directly or indirectly regulate the expression of genomic information Kaput and Rodriquez, ; Irimie et al.
Alteration in dietary chemicals from environmental or ecological disturbances can therefore produce altered expression of genomic events, which can lead to a form of chronic disease phenotype. Nutrigenomics appears to be promising as a significant improvement in the understanding of the molecular basis of chronic diseases including those arising from toxic metals or toxic chemical syndrome from environmental contamination.
Nutrigenomics is closely connected to nutrigenetics, which is an area more concerned with the investigation of how genetic variability affects body response to dietary components Alagawany et al. Nutrigenomics is still an evolving area with a lot of promise in toxicogenomics, environmental toxicology and ecotoxicology.
According to the report of Shakman ; one of the early environmentalists, humans currently live in an environment in which many kinds of pollution and ecological disorders are serious problems and appropriate food supplies are inadequate.
Although He emphasized the consequences of environmental pollution and the ameliorative influence of nutritional factors, which are essentially antioxidant factors, he did not envisage the full dimension of the environmental monster-climate change from unbaiting environmental pollution, that man could be confronted with Shakman, ; Zandalinas et al.
A growing concept of health considers health as an essential component of sustainable development, which can only be achieved through joint efforts by several sectors World Health Organization, ; Anetor et al.
A closer partnership between the health, environmental agencies and the agricultural sector is required to reduce the threat resulting from environmental and ecological derangements from aquatic and terrestrial environmental pollution. In contemporary world which may be considered as a chemical habitat, chemicals including metals, pesticides and PAHs are pervasive, causing a spectrum of toxicity.
In the more severe cases of heavy pollutant toxicity, treatment could be nutritional, which works slowly but efficiently and safely.
In this new century, it has become of critical importance for the major sectors: health, environment, and agriculture to evolve creative scientific mechanisms to stem the deleterious effects of environmental pollution on the ecosystem. The pressing desire for a collaborative intersectoral approach in dealing with contemporary environmental disorders are only being gradually recognized globally, with the developing countries in particular, lagging in several respects.
The vital importance of agriculture and food production as part of environmental development imperative is well known. The role of the agricultural and related sectors is to mitigate the deleterious effects of ecological and environmental disorders that may be aquatic or terrestrial, by modifying food production with a bias for food crops that have counteractive effects on the adverse effects of pollution such as fruits and vegetables, with special attention to areas of environmental pollution and ecological shifts.
This is probably why the Chinese with high incidence of cancer of the oesophagus and other parts of the gastrointestinal tract are currently among the greatest producers and consumers of fruit and vegetables He et al. This may also be true of the Mediterranean diet in Europe with its health beneficial impact.
While the current interest of the health sector is advocating increased consumption Sorenson et al. There has been an increasing awareness of the need to give priority to meeting the basic needs of people with emphasis on food security as well as health and education to enhance capacities for sustainable development.
However, in the last few decades there have been trends that give rise to deep and continuing concern. Globally increasing environmental pollution and ecological disorders Shifts pose newer challenges that in addition to meeting basic food and health needs, the health, agricultural and environmental safety sectors must collaborate to jointly combat the effect of pollution and attendant health problems, which indeed are aspects of meeting health needs underpinned by restoration of altered physiology.
This is probably in line with the early call by the Earth Summit for education for an environmentally sustainable future Smyth, The health sector has a responsibility to facilitate the understanding of the effect of pollution on aquatic and terrestrial components of the environment as well as the consequences on human health and advise the agricultural and environmental policy makers on strategies to ameliorate these attendant disorders.
The progressively stronger scientific and clinical recognition of nutrition and diet to health implies the need for education in different aspects of nutrient Anetor et al.
In the United States, the collaboration between the Agriculture and Health sectors in this regard is worthy of emulation and extrapolation particularly in the developing World.
This kind of partnership may help to curb a number of chronic diseases emanating from environmental pollution affecting both the aquatic and terrestrial components considerably through the pathway of oxidative stress.
There is substantial evidence that environmental pollution increases oxidative stress which affects aquatic and terrestrial organisms with far reaching pathological implications on human health. Pragmatically, mitigating pollutants associated oxidative stress may require a three-prong approach: bioremediation, which involves cleaning a polluted site by using naturally existing or intentionally introduced microbes to absorb and break down environmental contaminants, health education on disciplined environmental behavior as well as employing the principles of nutritional medicine essentially based on antioxidants derived mainly from plants.
Dietary antioxidant supplementation, antioxidant micronutrients and increased consumption of fruit and vegetable may all help to neutralize or buffer the effects of oxidizing pollutants. Understanding of the global picture of oxidative stress as well as integrating both the terrestrial and aquatic effects of environmental pollutants should be considered central to sustainable health of the population.
Integrating this concept with health education and health promotion as a creative intervention, appears unarguably instructive and a worthy strategy that will aid in the prevention of disease and improvement of the quality of human life based on recognition of the pivotal role of oxidative stress and its mitigation by means of antioxidant approaches strongly premised on the antioxidant hypothesis.
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Adam Speen and Philip Bromberg. The authors received funding from the following Grants: T32 ES KDS , R01 ES IJ , R01 ES IJ. Curriculum in Toxicology and Environmental Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Manning Drive, Chapel Hill, NC, , USA. Kevin D. Schichlein, Gregory J.
Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, , USA. Center for Environmental Medicine, Asthma, and Lung Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, , USA.
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Schichlein, K. Protective effects of inhaled antioxidants against air pollution-induced pathological responses. Respir Res 24 , Download citation. Received : 20 January Accepted : 06 July Published : 13 July Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:.
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Schichlein 1 , Gregory J. Abstract As the public health burden of air pollution continues to increase, new strategies to mitigate harmful health effects are needed. Graphical Abstract. Introduction Long-term exposure to air pollution is associated with increased risk of cardiopulmonary and neurological diseases, cancer, and overall mortality [ 1 ].
Composition of air pollutants and mechanisms of lung injury Air pollution consists of gaseous components ozone, volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and particulate matter PM.
Interactions of air pollutants with the respiratory mucosa The respiratory system is a primary route of exposure to airborne environmental insults; as such, the respiratory mucosa has several mechanisms to protect against injury from inhaled toxicants. Scope of review Given the topic of this review and the scarcity of literature on inhaled delivery of antioxidants, we chose to present this information as a narrative review.
Vitamin D Vitamin D, or cholecalciferol, is a nutrient involved in calcium regulation and phosphate homeostasis, playing a role in immune and musculoskeletal health. Glutathione Glutathione GSH is a thiol tripeptide found at high concentrations in most cells and is the primary non-enzymatic antioxidant found in ASL [ 38 ].
N-acetylcysteine N-acetylcysteine NAC , another precursor to glutathione, is a prescription drug used to treat acetaminophen overdoses and as a mucolytic for muco-obstructive lung diseases [ 45 ].
Melatonin Melatonin is an endogenous hormone primarily synthesized in the pineal gland from tryptophan [ 62 ]. Vitamin C Vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, is a water-soluble nutrient vital for proper immune function that cannot be synthesized endogenously.
Vitamin E Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant used by humans primarily in the form of α-tocopherol as well as other tocopherols such as γ-tocopherol, and is exclusively obtained through diet [ 85 ]. Limitations of current research The majority of clinical trials and in vivo murine experiments investigating antioxidant treatment to protect against air pollution-induced lung injury use either dietary supplementation or systemic delivery of antioxidants.
Considerations for inhaled antioxidant therapies Regarding inhaled therapies, it is important to acknowledge that agents may have different effects when they are inhaled than when administered through oral or dermal routes of exposure. Conclusions and future directions Based on the current body of evidence, antioxidants have the potential to provide protection against air pollution.
Animal-modelled studies are limited in applicability by obvious physiological differences between the human and animal model, making them significantly limited in terms of public health recommendations.
In vitro studies such as that performed by Greenwell et al. Further, despite the informative nature of the broad literature and studies that investigate the effects of varying basal endogenous antioxidant concentrations on pollutant responsiveness [ 20 ], such studies are limited by concerns over confounding in observational studies i.
Experimental studies, in which a single intervention is precisely administered, are particularly persuasive if an effect of the intervention is clearly observed. Currently, there is particular interest on the role of supplemental antioxidants in ameliorating pollution-induced insults to the lung and a general recognition that there is insufficient evidence for a strong recommendation therein at this time [ 21 ].
The desire to best understand the relevant evidence for such a recommendation compelled this systematic review. Accordingly, we decided to focus on studies that included direct measurement of lung function, as changes in lung function are most commonly appreciated as clinically relevant whereas studies inclusive only of biomarkers may be insightful but less compelling in terms of recommendations to the public.
Similarly, this systematic review did not evaluate studies that addressed the effects of endogenous antioxidants as modifiers of air pollution effects [ 22 ] or studies that addressed the effects of air pollution on altering endogenous antioxidant levels [ 23 ]; we have focused on the effects of exogenous administration of antioxidants, given the practical question of whether such supplements are likely to ameliorate air pollution-related respiratory health effects.
In summary of the above, the current review addresses the evidence for the effects of antioxidant supplementation, in intact humans, on changes in lung function associated with measured levels of air pollution. The systematic search strictly focused on the effects of antioxidant supplementation in humans, both paediatric and adult, with respect to lung function as an outcome associated with quantified levels of air pollutants.
Antioxidant supplementation could be naturally-occurring or synthetic, in any dose and form of administration, taken individually or in combination, and compared to placebo or to standard medication or care. Air pollutants were identified as ozone, nitrogen oxides, combustion-related particulate matter [excluding biomass and cigarette smoke], and oxides of sulfur.
As shown in Figure 1 , since the research question encompasses topics in medicine, public health and environmental studies, the literature search included appropriate electronic databases. Search terms related to the concepts of respiratory tract diseases, respiratory function tests, air pollution, and antioxidants were used.
They included MeSH Medical Subject Headings and keywords related to the concepts Additional Files 1. Having developed the above literature search strategies, the searches were run on April 23, Abstracts from this search were examined for duplicates, which were removed; the remaining abstracts were reviewed for inclusion based on title and abstract.
There were no restrictions on participant age, study type or study language. Studies which investigated related phenomena, but not strictly lung function, such as exhaled nitric oxide [ 24 ] or medication use [ 25 ] were excluded.
The first stage involved screening electronic abstracts. Authors CC and KC independently reviewed the abstracts, implementing predetermined selection criteria. Upon completion, both results were compared and abstracts which were included in one author's selection list and not the other were each discussed amongst the two authors.
Upon review, abstracts were eliminated only after a unanimous decision, or if disagreement remained abstracts were kept for a full-text review. Full-text of the articles was obtained for the remaining abstracts and each was scrutinized applying the inclusion criteria.
Further, references from selected studies were assessed for relevant articles, ensuring that the search was comprehensive.
After the full-text review, a total of thirteen studies consistent with our inclusion criteria were selected. One paper [ 26 ] described two independent studies, each of which met our specified criteria.
Therefore, this paper was treated as two separate studies in the summarizing tables. Finally, selected studies were assigned to one of two tables, depending on whether participants were subject to controlled pollution as represented in Table 1 or ambient, uncontrolled but measured pollution conditions as represented in Table 2.
As illustrated by Figure 1 , the original systematic search of six databases, using appropriate key words, resulted in literature entries. After duplicate studies were removed, a total of abstracts remained for assessment.
After scanning abstracts to eliminate those not conforming to inclusion criteria, 64 papers remained for a full text analysis. After further scrutiny for conformity to specified inclusion criteria by the two independent reviewers, a total of 13 studies remained. Common reasons for exclusion at this stage were lack of lung function measurements or investigation of endogenous as opposed to supplemental antioxidants.
The majority of selected studies were from the United States 6 studies , the Netherlands 3 studies and Mexico 2 studies with an additional study from Sweden and one from Italy. Vitamin C and ozone were the most common antioxidant and pollutant among the selected studies, respectively. Exposure length ranged from 45 minutes to 2 hours in the controlled conditions and from 2 hours to 6 months in the ambient pollution conditions.
Tables 1 and 2 contain key information about the 13 studies that fully met inclusion criteria, including study design, study population, country and year of investigation, individual study inclusion and exclusion criteria, and relevant outcomes. Table 1 summarizes eight studies that investigated the effects of antioxidant supplementation on lung function measurements, under controlled pollution conditions.
Studies providing support for antioxidants, as well as those lacking such support, are noted and we did not find any evidence for publication bias. Five of the reported studies concluded that pollutant induced airway hyper-responsiveness and diminution in lung function which were attenuated by antioxidant supplementation.
Mohsenin et al. Peters et al. Samet et al. After 2 hours of ozone exposure, Samet et al. Finally, Trenga et al. Three studies failed to demonstrate such a moderating effect of antioxidants. Mudway et al. Both independent trials of Hackney et al. The first trial reported a smaller decrease in lung function measurements FVC, FEV 1 in the supplemented group as compared to the placebo group, after 2 hours of controlled ozone exposure.
More specifically, the reported post exposure ΔFVC with placebo was During this trial, authors noted that the few vitamin supplemented male subjects demonstrated a potential beneficial effect and hence the second trial included only male subjects with similar exposure conditions as the first.
Table 2 summarizes the remaining 5 studies under ambient pollutant conditions. These studies each found that antioxidant supplementations attenuate the negative effects of ambient urban pollution on the lungs and airways. Romieu et al. A comparable study was conducted by Romieu et al.
in [ 31 ] with asthmatic children, followed-up for 12 weeks, as the study population. In this study, Romieu et al. Bucca et al.
The duration of exposure to the heavy car traffic city centre in the 'acute' protocol was 2 hours and this duration was 4 days in the 'chronic' protocol.
In the first phase, authors reported that pollutant-induced decrement in Maximal mid-Expiratory Flow MEF 50 is attenuated by vitamin C supplementation. FVC and FEV 1 remained nearly unchanged after NO 2 exposure.
In the second phase, authors reported that during placebo treatment the mean values of PEF were slightly but significantly decreased after exposure and were not significantly affected by exposure during vitamin C treatment.
No quantitative statistical significances were provided for these results. Grievink et al. Grievink and colleagues observed no significant effect on FVC, FEV 1 , PEF and MMEF maximal mid-expiratory flow , due to an eight hour mean ozone exposure in the supplemented group; however all these parameters except for MMEF were decremented as a result of the exposure in the control group.
Finally, in a randomized and double blinded study, Grievink, et al. Our approach was strictly systematic; a complete and relevant list of search terms was utilized in multiple appropriate databases and an independent application of inclusion criteria by two authors collectively ensured the comprehensiveness of this systematic search.
Our systematic approach distinguishes our work, particularly from the excellent effort of others. The current review however represents an update of previous reviews and is a formal and explicit search which systematically examined the literature and focused entirely on the potential role of anti-oxidant supplementations as opposed to also discussing biological and epidemiological evidence for the oxidative stress inducing role of air pollutants.
Accordingly, we expect that our approach is most helpful to those considering practical decisions and possibly guidelines, as well as researchers considering the need for further related work, regarding anti-oxidant supplementation to attenuate air pollution effects.
An immediate consistency in results is not apparent within studies conducted under controlled conditions Table 1. Even though 5 out of 8 studies in suggested a potential benefit for antioxidant supplementation, such results are far from unanimous and are contradicted by interesting studies that did not make our inclusion criteria.
However, this depletion in basal antioxidant concentrations was not associated with a significantly higher ozone induced neutrophilia or decrement in FEV 1 as compared with the control group.
This suggests a potential discrepancy between the roles of supplemented antioxidants compared to basal concentrations and warrants future studies to differentiate distinguished benefits from each. Despite the small number of studies conducted to date that fall within our inclusion criteria, the general consistency of studies in Table 2 , compromising of research conducted in ambient pollution conditions is noteworthy.
Arguably, these studies provide the most directly interpretable results, in terms of implementation of available data in public health recommendations; all such studies reported uncontrolled ambient pollutant conditions that were directly representative of daily life in these locations.
Such realistic exposures are more representative and informative than studies conducted under controlled exposure conditions, such as those in Table 1. All of the uncontrolled exposure studies concluded that a potential benefit for antioxidant supplementation in attenuating the negative effects of air pollution is evident; these findings are consistent with previous studies investigating the role of various anti-inflammatory interventions, for example azithromycin [ 37 ], indomethacin [ 38 ], cyclooxygenase metabolites [ 39 ] and budesonide [ 40 ] on pollution induced lung outcome.
However, such consistency does not refute the need for more research on the subject. For example, of all the studies in Table 2 , only one study [ 32 ] analysed the role of antioxidant supplementation on attenuating the negative health effects of combined exposure to measured pollutants.
In other words, all other studies only focused on the ability of supplements to lessen the effects of only one of the measured pollutants such as ozone , even though in reality humans are continuously exposed to combined levels of all relevant pollutants and research with public health applicability necessities an investigation of the combined effects of these pollutants and the potential role of supplementation.
Furthermore, the lack of personal exposure data in most studies is problematic in that exposure misclassification may occur under such circumstances. Finally, Grievink [ 33 ] was the only study that focused particularly on the effects of outdoor particulate matter PM exposure, despite significant morbidity and mortality associated with such exposures as outlined above [ 1 ].
Of the 13 studies that were reviewed for the current study, vitamin C, Vitamin E and B-carotene were examined for their roles in attenuating the adverse effects of pollutant.
There were conflicting results based on the varying controlled and uncontrolled exposures, yet there was a trend for potential benefit for antioxidant supplementation in ten of the 13 studies. Meanwhile the effects on morbidity and mortality are still unclear. Therefore future research in humans will need to focus on selecting appropriate exposure materials and length of time to quantify the benefits of antioxidant supplementation.
Cohen AJ, Anderson HR, Ostra B, Pandey KD, Krzyzanowski M, Künzli N, Gutschmidt K, Pope A, Romieu I, Samet JM, Smith K: The Global Burden of Disease due to Outdoor Air Pollution. J Toxicol Environ Health A. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar.
Barraza-Villarreal A, Sunyer J, Hernandez-Cadena L, Escamilla-Nuñez MC, Sienra-Monge JJ, Ramírez-Aguilar MM, Cortez-Lugo M, Holguin F, Diaz-Sánchez D, Olin AC, Romieu I: Air Pollution, Airway Inflammation, and Lung Function in a Cohort Study of Mexico City Schoolchildren.
Fro Research volume 24Article Concentrated Citrus Concentrate Cite envoronmental article. Metrics details. As the public health burden Clean beauty routines air pollution continues to Ahtioxidants, new strategies proyecting mitigate harmful health effects are needed. Dietary antioxidants have previously been explored to protect against air pollution-induced lung injury producing inconclusive results. Inhaled pulmonary or nasal administration of antioxidants presents a more promising approach as it could directly increase antioxidant levels in the airway surface liquid ASLproviding protection against oxidative damage from air pollution. Often used as a Antioxirants buzzword, learn about the role of Antooxidants beyond the hype, and some of Peak performance techniques research on health Fat burn goals disease prevention. Jump to: — What are antioxidants? Another constant threat comes from chemicals called free radicals. In very high levels, they are capable of damaging cells and genetic material. The body generates free radicals as the inevitable byproducts of turning food into energy.
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