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Carbohydrate metabolism and metabolic rate -

You burn negligible calories to use these carbs as fuel. In a study, which compared the consumption of energy by the individuals on low-carb diets with those on high-carb diets, it was noted that those on a low-carb diet are associated with increased metabolism and burn a lot more energy.

Low-carb diets may help cut down your appetite and prevent fluctuations in your blood glucose levels. Besides, low-carb diets usually contain a high level of protein, which needs more energy for digestion, thereby helping you burn more calories and supporting your weight loss.

However, low-carb diets may not work for all, mainly because your metabolism depends on the quality or types of carbohydrates and your unique physiology. Every human body responds differently to foods containing the exact amount or type of carbohydrate.

Usually, the foods we eat comprise complex structures that need to be broken down or metabolised by our body to derive the energy stored in them. Some foods with smaller thermic effects require less energy to process food, implying your body doesn't have to spend more energy to burn them.

While other foods with larger thermal effects require more energy to burn, which means your body consumes more calories to process them. So, the quality of carbohydrates matters. For instance, to get the sugar from an apple, our body has to break down its fibrous structure first.

In contrast, our body needs no effort if you just eat a spoonful of sugar. Usually, the more refined or processed low quality the food is, the easier it is to digest it.

So, precisely, consuming a diet comprising highly-refined carbohydrates like bread or white rice will provide you a lot more energy when compared to consuming the exact amount of carbohydrates from high quality sources of legumes, fruits, or whole intact grains. We all have unique genetics, microbiome, and response to food that differs for every person.

Some of you can digest a specific food item effortlessly and crack the energy inside quickly, while others may need much more time, effort, and energy to digest the same food.

So, if the same food impacts the metabolism of different people differently, whether you consume more energy on a high-carb diet or a low-carb diet is likely to be specific to you. Although low-carb diets are highly recommended for better health and weight loss, they may not be advisable or successful for everyone.

This is because how these diets impact your metabolism depends on several factors like the type of carbohydrates and how your body works. Some carbohydrates like fruits, legumes, or whole grains are difficult to digest and consume more calories to release the inner nutrients. Likewise, foods containing lots of fibre or complex carbohydrates are those that your body needs to process before they can be used by your body, burning more calories.

Such high-quality carbs are always a better choice to lose weight or help maintain your health. On the other hand, foods like refined grains or simple sugars are easy to digest, implying you burn less calories while digesting them. Besides, whether the food increases your metabolism and assists you in losing weight depends on your own unique biology.

This website's content is provided only for educational reasons and is not meant to be a replacement for professional medical advice.

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Carbohydrate Metabolism. In: Freeman BS, Berger JS. Freeman B. Brian S. In a series of reactions leading to pyruvate, the two phosphate groups are then transferred to two ADPs to form two ATPs.

Thus, glycolysis uses two ATPs but generates four ATPs, yielding a net gain of two ATPs and two molecules of pyruvate. In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate continues on to the Krebs cycle also called the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle TCA , where additional energy is extracted and passed on.

Figure 2. During the energy-consuming phase of glycolysis, two ATPs are consumed, transferring two phosphates to the glucose molecule. The glucose molecule then splits into two three-carbon compounds, each containing a phosphate.

During the second phase, an additional phosphate is added to each of the three-carbon compounds. The energy for this endergonic reaction is provided by the removal oxidation of two electrons from each three-carbon compound.

During the energy-releasing phase, the phosphates are removed from both three-carbon compounds and used to produce four ATP molecules. Glycolysis can be divided into two phases: energy consuming also called chemical priming and energy yielding.

The first phase is the energy-consuming phase , so it requires two ATP molecules to start the reaction for each molecule of glucose. However, the end of the reaction produces four ATPs, resulting in a net gain of two ATP energy molecules.

The NADH that is produced in this process will be used later to produce ATP in the mitochondria. Importantly, by the end of this process, one glucose molecule generates two pyruvate molecules, two high-energy ATP molecules, and two electron-carrying NADH molecules.

The following discussions of glycolysis include the enzymes responsible for the reactions. When glucose enters a cell, the enzyme hexokinase or glucokinase, in the liver rapidly adds a phosphate to convert it into glucosephosphate.

A kinase is a type of enzyme that adds a phosphate molecule to a substrate in this case, glucose, but it can be true of other molecules also. This conversion step requires one ATP and essentially traps the glucose in the cell, preventing it from passing back through the plasma membrane, thus allowing glycolysis to proceed.

It also functions to maintain a concentration gradient with higher glucose levels in the blood than in the tissues. By establishing this concentration gradient, the glucose in the blood will be able to flow from an area of high concentration the blood into an area of low concentration the tissues to be either used or stored.

Hexokinase is found in nearly every tissue in the body. Glucokinase , on the other hand, is expressed in tissues that are active when blood glucose levels are high, such as the liver. Hexokinase has a higher affinity for glucose than glucokinase and therefore is able to convert glucose at a faster rate than glucokinase.

This is important when levels of glucose are very low in the body, as it allows glucose to travel preferentially to those tissues that require it more. In the next step of the first phase of glycolysis, the enzyme glucosephosphate isomerase converts glucosephosphate into fructosephosphate.

Like glucose, fructose is also a six carbon-containing sugar. The enzyme phosphofructokinase-1 then adds one more phosphate to convert fructosephosphate into fructosebisphosphate, another six-carbon sugar, using another ATP molecule.

Aldolase then breaks down this fructosebisphosphate into two three-carbon molecules, glyceraldehydephosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. The triosephosphate isomerase enzyme then converts dihydroxyacetone phosphate into a second glyceraldehydephosphate molecule. Therefore, by the end of this chemical- priming or energy-consuming phase, one glucose molecule is broken down into two glyceraldehydephosphate molecules.

The second phase of glycolysis, the energy-yielding phase , creates the energy that is the product of glycolysis. Glyceraldehydephosphate dehydrogenase converts each three-carbon glyceraldehydephosphate produced during the. energy-consuming phase into 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.

NADH is a high-energy molecule, like ATP, but unlike ATP, it is not used as energy currency by the cell. Because there are two glyceraldehydephosphate molecules, two NADH molecules are synthesized during this step. Each 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is subsequently dephosphorylated i.

Each phosphate released in this reaction can convert one molecule of ADP into one high- energy ATP molecule, resulting in a gain of two ATP molecules. The enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase then converts the 3-phosphoglycerate molecules into 2-phosphoglycerate.

The enolase enzyme then acts upon the 2-phosphoglycerate molecules to convert them into phosphoenolpyruvate molecules. The last step of glycolysis involves the dephosphorylation of the two phosphoenolpyruvate molecules by pyruvate kinase to create two pyruvate molecules and two ATP molecules.

In summary, one glucose molecule breaks down into two pyruvate molecules, and creates two net ATP molecules and two NADH molecules by glycolysis.

Therefore, glycolysis generates energy for the cell and creates pyruvate molecules that can be processed further through the aerobic Krebs cycle also called the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle ; converted into lactic acid or alcohol in yeast by fermentation; or used later for the synthesis of glucose through gluconeogenesis.

When oxygen is limited or absent, pyruvate enters an anaerobic pathway. In these reactions, pyruvate can be converted into lactic acid. In this reaction, lactic acid replaces oxygen as the final electron acceptor.

Anaerobic respiration occurs in most cells of the body when oxygen is limited or mitochondria are absent or nonfunctional. For example, because erythrocytes red blood cells lack mitochondria, they must produce their ATP from anaerobic respiration.

This is an effective pathway of ATP production for short periods of time, ranging from seconds to a few minutes. The lactic acid produced diffuses into the plasma and is carried to the liver, where it is converted back into pyruvate or glucose via the Cori cycle.

Similarly, when a person exercises, muscles use ATP faster than oxygen can be delivered to them. They depend on glycolysis and lactic acid production for rapid ATP production.

The NADH and FADH2 pass electrons on to the electron transport chain, which uses the transferred energy to produce ATP. As the terminal step in the electron transport chain, oxygen is the terminal electron acceptor and creates water inside the mitochondria.

Figure 3. Click to view a larger image. The process of anaerobic respiration converts glucose into two lactate molecules in the absence of oxygen or within erythrocytes that lack mitochondria. During aerobic respiration, glucose is oxidized into two pyruvate molecules. The pyruvate molecules generated during glycolysis are transported across the mitochondrial membrane into the inner mitochondrial matrix, where they are metabolized by enzymes in a pathway called the Krebs cycle Figure 4.

The Krebs cycle is also commonly called the citric acid cycle or the tricarboxylic acid TCA cycle. During the Krebs cycle, high-energy molecules, including ATP, NADH, and FADH2, are created. NADH and FADH2 then pass electrons through the electron transport chain in the mitochondria to generate more ATP molecules.

Figure 4. During the Krebs cycle, each pyruvate that is generated by glycolysis is converted into a two-carbon acetyl CoA molecule.

The acetyl CoA is systematically processed through the cycle and produces high- energy NADH, FADH2, and ATP molecules. The three-carbon pyruvate molecule generated during glycolysis moves from the cytoplasm into the mitochondrial matrix, where it is converted by the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase into a two-carbon acetyl coenzyme A acetyl CoA molecule.

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