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Time restricted eating lowers glucoseTime-restricted eating patterns -
TRE has received a lot of attention recently due to its many health benefits including but not limited to cardiovascular health, weight loss, and improved metabolic functions [1, 4].
However, some promising research shows that TRE may be beneficial for other reasons. TRE has a specific impact on circadian rhythms. Your circadian rhythms are your internal biological clock that runs on a hour cycle.
They play a role in promoting preparatory changes in metabolic functions such as adapting to changes in light, temperature, and nutrient availability in the body [5]. Simply put, circadian rhythms work by ensuring that everything you need to live is happening in the right place at the right time of day.
Your circadian rhythms can be influenced by factors such as sleep patterns, physical activity, light and dark exposure, and nutrient intake. When disrupted, these factors can throw off your circadian windows and negatively impact hormones that influence metabolic health and organ function.
These changes are associated with an increased risk of infectious and chronic diseases. These results are powerful, as there was a significant impact on 4 out of 5 of the markers of metabolic syndrome.
This study showed that following a calorie-restricted diet pattern for two years was not only manageable but also safe. Another randomized controlled trial found that body weight decreased in those who were following an alternate-day fasting ADF eating pattern [6].
This study shows that ADF was effective for weight loss and had a protective effect on heart health in both normal and overweight adults.
Arguably the most compelling reason for adopting a TRE dietary pattern is the weight loss benefits. One group had an early TRE window am to pm , while the other ate over a hour and greater period.
The group that practiced TRE:. Additionally, in a secondary analysis of 59 people who completed the study, the early TRE group was also more effective in losing body fat and weight than the control group. Recent caloric reduction interventions have found greater weight loss if lunch was consumed earlier in the day [8].
Studies on the timing of food intake and length of overnight fasting for health outcomes are emerging. In other words, a longer overnight fasting period was significantly associated with improved glycemic regulation.
Recent human studies have shown that TRE increased insulin sensitivity and decreased postprandial insulin, oxidative stress, blood pressure, and appetite [12]. Of note, this study was performed in men with prediabetes and examined early time-restricted feeding eTRF , which is a type of TRE that involves eating earlier in the day for alignment with circadian rhythms in metabolism.
While this study was done in people with prediabetes, and may not be generalizable to a healthy population, it still may be worth trying to see if it works for your unique biochemistry, energy levels, and sleep. TRE can be an easy addition to your daily routine, especially due to its simplicity and versatility.
There are many methods of TRE and what works for you may not be the same as what works for your friend. Depending on your individual goals and lifestyle, one of the methods below may be best.
Refraining from eating for a specific time period e. This method would be a good option for beginners as it is the least intensive in terms of the number of hours that one is restricting their calories. Engaging in unrestricted eating for 5 consecutive days of the week and then having restricted caloric intake on the other 2 days is known as the method [2].
There should be at least 1 non-fasting day between fasting or calorie restriction days. This method would be a good option for someone who did not see or feel any benefits from the method.
The last type of IF or TRE involves unrestricted eating every other day and minimal calories consumed on between days, which is known as alternate-day fasting [2].
This form of fasting is the most extreme of the methods described, and may not be the best for beginners or those with certain medical conditions [14]. You should consult with your healthcare professional before implementing this method.
Although there are many promising health benefits from following a TRE pattern, these methods are not suitable for everyone [14]. If you fall into one of the categories below, you should consult with your healthcare professional before testing one out for yourself.
Weight Loss. Metabolic Health. What is time-restricted eating? Time-restricted eating vs. Intermediate-TRE was defined as delaying the first eating occasion and advancing the last meal of the day first eating occasion occurring between 3.
The Actigraph Link ActiGraph, Pensacola FL , a triaxial accelerometer, was worn on the non-dominant wrist for 2 weeks at pre-intervention and again at end-intervention. Data were collected in 60 second epochs and scored using the Cole-Kripke algorithm.
Participants reported their typical weekday and weekend bed and wake times, which were used to facilitate actigraphy scoring. Sleep variables calculated included bedtime, waketime, and total sleep time.
At pre-intervention and end-intervention, height and weight were measured by study staff. DXA GE Healthcare Lunar DXA; General Electric Medical Systems, Madison, WI assessed body composition using standard positioning and imaging protocols.
Markers of insulin sensitivity were measured at pre-intervention and end-intervention using an oral glucose tolerance test OGTT following an 8 h fast. After baseline sampling, 75 g glucose Trutol 75 Glucose Tolerance Beverage, Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA was consumed orally and plasma glucose and serum insulin were sampled every 30 min over 2 h.
Meal timing data with adequate documentation on the mCC app were aligned with sleep data such that intake events during the day were associated with the following night of sleep.
If sleep aligned data were not available, the preceding meal timing data were excluded. To be included for analyses, at least 2 days of aligned meal timing data and sleep data were required. One individual was excluded from the non-TRE at end-intervention because they only provided 1 day of sleep data.
In the TRE group, one individual did not have any meals logged during the sleep measurement period. Thus, the end-intervention analysis included 8 individuals in the non-TRE group and 10 individuals in the TRE group.
Demographic characteristics were summarized with descriptive statistics. Independent samples t -tests were used to compare pre-intervention demographic, sleep, and meal timing variables between the TRE and non-TRE groups.
Linear regression analyses examined associations between intervention group and change in meal timing and sleep, controlling for pre-intervention values. Pearson product moment correlations were also used to examine associations between timing of the last meal and health outcomes at pre-intervention BMI, HbA1c, fasting glucose, HOMA-IR, and Matsuda Index.
SPSS Statistics 26 and R statistical software version 4. Eleven participants completed the TRE intervention No participants were taking any medication for dysglycemia or weight loss treatment during the study.
On average, participants had 8 ± 3. There were no significant between group differences. We evaluated the relationship between late night eating and health outcomes at pre-intervention Supplementary Figure. There were no other significant associations between health outcomes and the timing of last eating occasions.
There were also no significant associations at end-intervention after accounting for pre-intervention values. Between the TRE and non-TRE groups, there were no differences in the timing of eating occasions during the pre-intervention period.
At end-intervention, the TRE group significant delayed the time of the first eating occasion of the day, both when expressed by absolute clock time and as hours since wake Table 1 ; Figure 1.
In contrast, the timing of the first and last eating occasions in the non-TRE group remained similar between pre- to end-intervention. Figure 1. Timing of eating for each day at Pre- and End-Intervention.
Individual participants are represented by different colored points. The non-TRE participants are depicted on the top, while the TRE participants are depicted on the bottom; each participant is depicted once at both Baseline Left and End Intervention Right.
A shift toward the line of identity blue solid line , would be indicative of a shortened eating window consistent with TRE. Upper left box represents an early-TRE eating pattern, whereas the lower right box represents a late TRE eating pattern. The middle box represents an intermediate-TRE eating pattern which the timing of the first and last meals were shifted by similar magnitudes.
Eating pattern was categorized using the timing of the first and last eating occasion of the day Table 2. Finally, no participants in the TRE group elected to follow a Late-TRE pattern. Finally, there were 2 individuals in the non-TRE group who adopted a Late-TRE eating pattern where they delayed both their first and last eating occasions.
We investigated change in late-night eating, or the timing of the last eating occasion relative to bedtime expressed as hours before bed from pre- to end-intervention. At pre-intervention, all participants had at least one instance of eating within 2 h of bedtime.
Pre-intervention values and change in actigraphy-estimated sleep variables are reported by group in Table 3. Compared to the recommended 7—9 h 24 , participants in both groups on average obtained insufficient sleep on weekdays and weekends at pre-intervention and end-intervention.
Average sleep duration at pre-intervention for the entire sample was 6. No significant differences in weekday or weekend sleep variables were found between the TRE and Non-TRE groups at either pre-intervention or end-intervention.
Changes in all actigraphy variables from pre- to end-intervention were not significantly associated with group. Analyses revealed a significant association between sleep duration and change in eating window, controlling for pre-intervention eating window. Table 3. Pre-intervention and change from pre- to end-intervention for actigraphy-estimated sleep by group.
In this examination of participants following a randomized-controlled trial of a self-selected TRE intervention, we found that the TRE group significantly delayed the first eating occasion of the day and advanced the last eating occasion of the day, with most participants following an Early or Intermediate TRE eating pattern in the TRE group.
In contrast, most participants in the non-TRE group maintained an Early-Late eating pattern such that their food consumption occurred across the entire day. Notably, only 4 participants in the TRE condition were consistent across days in their eating pattern, while most participants had a combination of both Early and Intermediate eating.
Findings from the current study suggest that TRE intervention does not worsen sleep, as we found no change in objectively measured sleep duration or timing from pre- to end-intervention for either group.
Moreover, greater restriction of the eating window was associated with longer sleep duration. However, study participants on average obtained less than the recommended 7—9 h of sleep per night, suggesting insufficient sleep. As insufficient sleep is independently associated with obesity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome 25 — 27 , a focus on TRE's effects on sleep may be warranted.
Future research incorporating behavioral strategies to enhance sleep during TRE intervention could be considered. Late-night eating was significantly reduced in the TRE group, with participants completely ceasing food consumption within 2h of bedtime at end-intervention.
This was in contrast to the non-TRE group which did not change their late-night eating habits. Prior studies have shown that late-night eating is associated with obesity, dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia, and metabolic syndrome 28 , consistent with our findings that late-night eating was associated with higher fasting glucose and HbA1c.
Sutton et al. investigated the effects of an early TRE intervention 6-h eating window which the end time was set to on weight and metabolic outcomes. Despite no change in weight, they found improvements in insulin sensitivity, beta cell responsiveness, and blood pressure 4.
In contrast, Weiss recently showed that in a TRE intervention which restricted the eating window to —, there were no changes in glycemic outcomes Data from the present study are consistent with previous reports in the literature. Together, these findings suggest that reduced late-night eating may be one mechanism by which TRE might improve metabolic measures.
Further studies on the timing of TRE are warranted to understand which components of TRE interventions drive the reported weight and metabolic related changes. The field of TRE suggests restricting eating to a certain time of day affects daily activity-rest rhythms and the intrinsic circadian clock Specifically, TRE may alter the circadian misalignment that commonly occurs in today's society due in part to activity and eating through the day and night facilitated by artificial light and the prevalence of personal electronic devices Because participants in the current study self-selected their eating window, it is possible that they chose their TRE schedule based on their convenience, regardless of their natural circadian rhythm.
A longitudinal study of the British Birth Cohort showed that more irregular eating patterns were associated with future risk for metabolic syndrome and obesity Others have demonstrated that consistency in the timing of other lifestyle behaviors, like exercise, is related to improved weight loss 32 , thus considering the variability of behavior timing may be an important consideration for future studies.
Notably, 6 participants were classified as having an Inconsistent meal timing pattern at end-intervention. Further study considering the impact of meal timing variability in the context of TRE and impact on health outcomes is suggested. Additionally, future research assessing chronotype morning vs.
evening preference and circadian rhythms directly via melatonin in conjunction with both self-selected and assigned TRE schedules may help to better elucidate how TRE interacts with circadian rhythms to effect weight loss. Strengths of the current study include objective measurement of sleep variables, real-time assessment of dietary timing, and a randomized, age- and sex-matched non-TRE control group.
Having the control group provided critical comparison, as several participants still shifted their eating patterns despite being instructed to maintain their usual eating habits. Limiting factors include the small sample size, which limited our power and reduced our ability to control for potential covariates in analyses, though the current sample is similar to many of the existing TRE studies 3 , As food intake was captured only by images and text description in the mCC app, we could not quantify energy intake, another acknowledged limitation.
Thus, interpretation of results should be considered in the context of this preliminary pilot study. A majority of participants were female, which may limit generalizability of findings to males. Part of the inclusion criteria for the current study required participants to have a relatively stable sleep schedule; thus, our findings may not be representative of those with more variable schedules.
These data emphasize the importance of assessing adherence to intervention and control group requirements in behavioral interventions particularly in those interventions which are popular in the mainstream media.
The TRE intervention did not negatively impact sleep, and those with greater restriction of their eating window also had longer sleep duration. We recommend applying the meal timing classification methodology to future trials of TRE in larger sample sizes. Future research examining eating variability, directly intervening on sleep habits, and comparing Early vs.
Late TRE, as well as Intermediate TRE as a novel framework in larger samples may help elucidate mechanisms responsible for the effect of TRE on weight loss in individuals with obesity. The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by University of Minnesota IRB. LC, SS, and JB: conceptualization.
LC, DM, SP, and EM: methodology. SS and JB: formal analysis and writing—original draft preparation. LC: investigation and funding acquisition. SS, JB, EM, SP, DM, and LC: writing—review and editing.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. This work was supported by the Healthy Foods Healthy Lives program 17SFR-2YR50LC to LC and the National Institutes of Health NIH National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, UL1TR; NIH NIDDK, 1K23DK to SS.
The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results. Author SP has authored the book The Circadian Code, for which he receives author royalties and in which he specifically recommends time restricted eating.
The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers.
Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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