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Home Books Clinical Sports Nutrition, 6e. Previous Chapter. Next Chapter. Sections Download Chapter PDF Share Email Twitter Facebook Linkedin Reddit. AMA Citation Manore M.
Manore M Manore, Melinda M. Energy Requirements and Measurement of Energy Expenditure. In: Burke L, Deakin V, Minehan M. Louise Burke, et al. Clinical Sports Nutrition, 6e. McGraw Hill Education Australia Pty Ltd; Accessed February 14, APA Citation Manore M.
Energy requirements and measurement of energy expenditure. Burke L, Deakin V, Minehan M. McGraw Hill Education Australia Pty Ltd. MLA Citation Manore M. Download citation file: RIS Zotero. Reference Manager. Autosuggest Results. Sections View Full Chapter Figures Tables Videos Annotate.
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Human Movement Sciences and Laura Oberholzer B. Health Science and Technology for their valuable assistance during the literature selection process and quality assessment of relevant articles.
JH participated in the design of the study; carried out the data acquisition, analysis and interpretation of the results; and drafted the manuscript. BK, YS, and KM participated in the conception and design; analysis and interpretation of the results; drafting and revisions of the manuscript for important intellectual content.
All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Juliane Heydenreich, Bengt Kayser, Yves Schutz, and Katarina Melzer declare that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper.
Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen SFISM, Hauptstrasse , , Magglingen, Switzerland. Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, , Switzerland. Faculty of Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, , Switzerland. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar.
Correspondence to Juliane Heydenreich. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4. Reprints and permissions.
Heydenreich, J. et al. Total Energy Expenditure, Energy Intake, and Body Composition in Endurance Athletes Across the Training Season: A Systematic Review.
Sports Med - Open 3 , 8 Download citation. Received : 07 September Accepted : 24 January Published : 04 February Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:.
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Skip to main content. Search all SpringerOpen articles Search. Download PDF. Abstract Background Endurance athletes perform periodized training in order to prepare for main competitions and maximize performance.
Methods An electronic database search was conducted on the SPORTDiscus and MEDLINE January —31 January databases using a combination of relevant keywords. Results From citations, articles were identified as potentially relevant, with 82 meeting all of the inclusion criteria.
Conclusions Limitations of the present study included insufficient data being available for all seasonal training phases and thus low explanatory power of single parameters. Key Points Endurance athletes show training seasonal fluctuations in TEE, energy intake, and body composition.
Full size image. Methods The review protocol was developed according to the Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology Guidelines for meta-analyses and systematic reviews of observational studies [ 53 ].
Search Strategy A systematic literature search was performed to retrieve articles pertaining to body composition, energy intake, and TEE in endurance athletes across the training season. Literature Selection Two researchers independently assessed the eligibility of the records by screening the title, abstract, and keywords for inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Methodological Quality Assessment All relevant articles were examined for full methodological quality using a modified version of the Downs and Black [ 55 ] checklist for the assessment of the methodological quality of randomized and non-randomized studies of health care interventions.
Table 1 Clustering of seasonal training phases for body composition, energy intake, and total energy expenditure Full size table.
Results Description of Studies and Assessment Methods The flow chart for the study selection process is shown in Fig. Table 2 Characteristics of the studies included in the review of body composition BC , energy intake EI , and total energy expenditure TEE Full size table.
Table 3 Physical characteristics of included study estimates Full size table. Energy balance EB of male endurance athletes during preparation and competition phase.
Energy balance EB of female endurance athletes during preparation and competition phase. Table 5 Body composition of included study estimates across the season Full size table.
Strengths and Limitations This is, to our knowledge, the first systematic review focusing on fluctuations in TEE, energy intake, and body composition in endurance athletes. Conclusions Our analysis highlights the important seasonal fluctuations in TEE, energy intake, and body composition in male and female endurance athletes across the training season.
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Injury prevention through proper diet and exercise Medicine Caffeine from natures sources Open volume 3 enerfy, Article number: 8 Cite this article. Enegry details. Endurance athletes perform periodized training in exenditure Caffeine from natures sources prepare for main expenditkre and Muscle growth training performance. However, the coupling between wnd of total energy expenditure Expendutureenergy intake, and body composition during different seasonal training phases is unclear. The purpose of this study was to 1 systematically analyze TEE, energy intake, and body composition in highly trained athletes of various endurance disciplines and of both sexes and 2 analyze fluctuations in these parameters across the training season. An electronic database search was conducted on the SPORTDiscus and MEDLINE January —31 January databases using a combination of relevant keywords. Two independent reviewers identified potentially relevant studies.Sports and energy expenditure -
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Home Books Clinical Sports Nutrition, 6e. Previous Chapter. Next Chapter. Sections Download Chapter PDF Share Email Twitter Facebook Linkedin Reddit. AMA Citation Manore M. The maximum possible total score was Two researchers assessed the study quality independently, with differences resolved by consensus or by a third author KM.
The agreement between the two researchers was quantified by kappa statistics [ 54 ]. Based on the assessment of the methodological study quality, no studies were excluded and no additional analyses were undertaken.
The methodological quality of the included studies is shown in Additional file 2 : Table S2. If the same subjects were analyzed during different time points in the same seasonal phase e. To enable comparisons between studies, reported units were converted into standard units.
These conversions were performed by using the reported mean values of the outcomes. According to the definition by Wang et al. Duplicate publications from the same data set were identified according to the criteria published in the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Intervention [ 58 ].
The most complete record was then used for data extraction. According to the traditional periodization model, the reported seasonal training phases of data assessment were clustered into three groups that included the preparation phase, the competition phase, and the transition phase [ 14 — 16 ].
A detailed overview of the clustering can be obtained in Table 1. The main outcome measures were body composition fat mass, FFM , energy intake, and TEE of endurance athletes across the season. Once all of the relevant data were extracted, the weighted mean and standard deviation of the weighted mean were calculated for the main outcome variables.
Based on the number of subjects examined within the study, relative to the total number of subjects examined for the specific variable, a percentage weight w was allocated to each result within each outcome variable and used for the calculation of the overall weighted mean X̅ w and standard deviation of the weighted mean SD w for each variable [ 59 ].
Statistical analyses were performed using the statistical software SPSS statistics version 22 for Windows IBM Corp. Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests were performed to check for normal distributions.
All parameters were normally distributed except body mass, fat mass, and FFM. To test for comparisons of subgroups, one-factorial analyses of variance ANOVAs with Scheffé post hoc tests parametric and Kruskal-Wallis tests H -test with Mann-Whitney U post hoc tests non-parametric were performed.
When multiple non-parametric post hoc tests were applied, Bonferroni-adjusted alpha levels were applied. Since parameters for body composition were not normally distributed, we abstained from multiple statistical comparisons between seasonal training phases and endurance disciplines to reduce the risk of type I errors.
For comparisons of energy intake and TEE during different seasonal training phases, paired t -tests were used. The separate analysis of studies, where energy intake and TEE were assessed in parallel, and longitudinal studies that reported energy intake during different training season phases, were performed using the free software for meta-analysis Review Manager 5 version 5.
The flow chart for the study selection process is shown in Fig. Data were extracted from 82 studies in endurance athletes, with 53 studies assessing body composition, 48 energy intake, and 14 TEE.
The kappa value of 0. Flow chart for the present systematic review. The characteristics of the included studies for body composition, energy intake, and TEE are shown in Table 2. In Additional file 3 : Table S3, an overview of excluded studies and the reasons for their exclusion can be found.
The cumulative number of subjects included in the analysis was Runners On average, the mean age, VO 2max , and training volume of study estimates were A detailed overview of physical characteristics of included study estimates is shown in Table 3.
Body composition was assessed by DXA in In Ten studies For determination of energy intake, dietary records Dietary recall 3. Half of the studies Other methods included heart rate monitoring The studies using heart rate monitoring for estimation of TEE used individual derived linear relationships between heart rate and oxygen consumption HR—VO 2 during different tasks to estimate the oxygen cost and energy expenditure during the observation period.
Two third of the studies used the h heart rate recordings and the individual HR—VO 2 relationship to estimate TEE gross calculation. Two studies calculated TEE by summation of activity energy expenditure based on individual HR—VO 2 relationship and resting metabolic rate RMR; net calculation.
In total, 14 studies where TEE was assessed during various seasonal training phases were identified by the literature search. In addition, due to limited data, no separations between the sexes and endurance disciplines of TEE were performed.
No data for TEE of females during competition phase available. Table 4 provides a detailed overview of the absolute and relative energy intakes differentiated by sex, endurance discipline, and seasonal training phase. Reasons for the lower energy intake in female rowers might be that during preparation phase the athletes often reduce their energy intake in order to reduce concomitantly their body weight to start in the lightweight category.
Runners, in general, profit from a low body mass since greater economy of movement and better thermoregulatory capacity from a favorable ratio of weight to surface area and less insulation from subcutaneous fat tissue is reached [ 10 ]. A separate analysis of energy balance was performed by including only studies where both energy intake and expenditure were assessed in parallel.
The relative energy deficit was 6. Forest plot for comparison of energy intake during preparation and competition phase in endurance athletes. In more than half However, a separate statistical analysis assessing seasonal training phase differences of TEE between eumenorrheic and amenorrheic athletes could not be performed, since the cumulative number of subjects was too low in the single training phases.
Since the percentage of female data on total data varies between the seasonal training phases, we further split the data by sex. Fat-free mass and fat mass of endurance athletes during preparation, competition, and transition phase.
In more than one third However, a separate analysis between eumenorrheic and amenorrheic athletes could not be performed, since the cumulative number of subjects during the different seasonal training phases was too low. We found that some, but not all, of the investigated outcomes depended on the time point of data assessment during seasonal training.
TEE was highest during the competition phase and higher than energy intake in all seasonal training phases.
Alterations in TEE did not lead to adaptations of energy intake in females, whereas in males, a higher absolute energy intake during the competition phase was observed. The finding that male endurance athletes demonstrated the highest fat mass values during the competition phase and the lowest FFM during the transition phase seems to be an anomaly from the pooling of data.
Our systematic search initially yielded many studies where TEE, energy intake, or body composition in endurance athletes were investigated.
This is unfortunate since our analysis clearly illustrates how training volume and related TEE vary importantly with seasonal training phases. Specifically and expectedly, both absolute and relative TEEs were significantly higher during the competition phase compared to the preparation phase.
During the transition phase, limited data for TEE and energy intake of endurance athletes was available. Only for body composition, it was possible to compare with other seasonal training phases, although the number of study estimates and therefore, explanatory power, was weak.
Future research on elite athletes should focus on the effects of a sudden stop or reduction in TEE on body composition e. There exist only a few studies with conflicting results where this question has been examined.
Ormsbee and Arciero investigated the effects of 5 weeks of detraining on body composition and RMR in eight male and female swimmers [ 65 ]. RMR decreased, whereas fat mass and body weight increased with detraining.
In contrast, LaForgia et al. showed that after 3 weeks of detraining, no differences in RMR and percentage of fat mass occurred in male endurance athletes [ 38 ]. Unfortunately, energy intake was not reported in either of these studies. The most obvious explanation for these energy deficits is likely the classical issue of under-reporting energy intake through self-assessment in human studies.
Since under-reporting increases in magnitude as energy requirements increase [ 34 ], we must assume that under-reporting in the present study estimates was more important during the competition phase. Another explanation for the negative energy balance might be the low accuracy and precision of methods used to estimate energy intake in athletes in the articles included in our review.
For example, mostly dietary records with a mean observation time of 4. According to Magkos and Yannakoulia, for athletes, a 3—7-day diet-monitoring period would be enough for reasonably accurate and precise estimations of habitual energy and macronutrient consumption [ 34 ].
However, other methods like FFQs and dietary recalls were also used for energy intake estimations. These methods are both memory-dependent and show lower accuracy and precision than prospective methods like dietary records [ 72 ].
However, even when only articles were considered where energy intake was assessed by the use of dietary records, the error remained high 2. Finally, the high negative energy balance during the competition phase may also be explained by the fact that, apart from one study, all included studies investigated the TEE during the days with actual competition and not during habitual training days in the competition phase.
Thus, it is likely that the TEE during this phase was over-estimated. During the preparation phase, a negative energy balance leading to increased energy store utilization might be desirable by coaches and athletes to reach a sport-specific body composition, but during the competition phase, body composition should not be modified anymore since it is typically already at its optimum.
There was one study in which dietary intake was strictly controlled since the subjects were in confinement. Brouns et al. simulated a Tour de France race in a metabolic chamber and calculated the daily energy balance from the energy expended and energy intake as calculated from daily food and fluid consumption [ 73 ].
They found a positive energy balance during active rest days whereas during the exercise days, a significant negative energy balance was observed.
The authors concluded that if prolonged intensive cycling increases energy expenditure to levels above a certain threshold probably around 20 MJ or kcal , athletes are unable to consume enough conventional food to provide adequate energy to compensate for the increased energy expenditure.
The authors of a recent review addressing the criticisms regarding the value of self-reported dietary intake data reasoned that these should not be used as a measure of energy intake [ 74 ].
Thus, there is an urgent need for better methods of dietary intake quantification, such as dietary biomarkers and automated image analysis of food and drink consumption [ 74 ].
Thus, energy balance is an output from those systems. Since the results of the present study indicate a high negative energy balance in endurance athletes, we must assume that the athletes also demonstrate low energy availability. However, due to the limited data, it was not possible to account for other clinical markers e.
We recommend that energy balance-related studies in endurance athletes should also assess and report clinical markers, such as bone mineral density and menstrual status, in order to assess the clinical consequences of the mismatch of TEE and energy intake.
The aggregate analysis yielded a surprising finding. In male endurance athletes, the absolute and relative fat mass was highest during the competition phase. In contrast, during the transition phase, FFM was lowest, which goes along with our expectations with a decrease in exercise volume and intensity.
For the female athletes, we did not find these fluctuations in body composition, except for a higher body fat content during the preparation phase compared to the transition phase.
We believe that these findings are due to the paucity of data and to the fact that the number and type of athletes varied between seasonal training phases. Further studies with longitudinal assessments of body composition are required to support these findings.
However, in only 5. According to Nana et al. It has been shown that the use of a non-standardized protocol increased the variability for total and fat-free soft tissue mass compared to a standard protocol, which might include a loss in ability to detect an effect of an intervention that might have relevance for sports performance [ 78 ].
The use of non-standardized protocols and the concomitant higher variability might explain some of the unexpected findings of body composition changes in athletes of the present study. In male endurance athletes, absolute energy intake was higher during the competition phase compared to the preparation phase.
The relative energy intake was not different, which can be explained by the apparent significant increase of body mass during the competition phase, and is likely an artifact of the aggregation of data from various studies.
In female athletes, neither absolute nor relative energy intake was different between seasonal phases. When focusing on longitudinal studies that assessed energy intake during different training seasons in the same cohort, there was a tendency for male athletes to show greater fluctuations in energy intake.
In female cross-country skiers, the energy intake was higher during the preparation phase [ 50 ], whereas in female runners and swimmers, the energy intake was higher during the competition phase [ 47 ].
However, summing up both studies, no significant differences between training season phases were found. In contrast, male endurance athletes showed a significantly higher energy intake during the competition phase, as seen in male runners [ 44 ], cross-country skiers [ 50 ], swimmers [ 43 ], and triathletes [ 49 ].
Although some of the included studies showed greater energy intake in male endurance athletes during the preparation phase cyclists [ 46 , 48 ], swimmers [ 43 ] , the power of these studies was too low to change the results. However, since energy intake varies in male endurance athletes depending on the training season phase, it indeed seems appropriate to adapt dietary recommendations according to the different training season phases, as proposed by Stellingwerff et al.
This is, to our knowledge, the first systematic review focusing on fluctuations in TEE, energy intake, and body composition in endurance athletes. To increase the robustness of the outcomes of our systematic review, we excluded articles where body composition was estimated by skinfold measurements and equations.
The accuracy of skinfold measurements depends on the number of measurement sites and the formula used to calculate the percentage of body fat [ 33 ]. Since there are many different techniques [ 79 ], it is impossible to compare results accurately between studies.
Furthermore, skinfold measurements cannot be used to assess intra-abdominal adipose tissue and are highly variable when assessors with limited training and experience perform the measurements [ 32 ].
Of course, since skinfolds are very often used for body composition assessments, the exclusion of these articles reduced the total number of articles measuring body composition, which were included in the present systematic review.
The inclusion of articles with skinfold body composition determination would have led to a higher number of study estimates and comparisons of different seasonal training phases would have a higher explanatory power.
The same is true for estimations of TEE. We included only articles measuring TEE in a more objective way such as DLW and excluded articles where TEE was assessed by questionnaires or activity records.
This led to the inclusion of a limited number of high-quality studies. Limitations of the present study relate to the limited cumulative number of subjects, which provided a low explanatory power, and the classification of the different seasonal training phases.
In the literature, several similar-sounding terms have been used to describe time points of data collection in athletes. However, assigning the appropriate classification into one of the three seasonal training phases is essential and has a great impact on the final analysis.
Furthermore, if articles reported several time points of data collection within one seasonal training phase, we included only the first time point into the analysis in order to assure standardization and avoid selection bias.
The exclusion of other time points might have led to the loss of interesting data. Our analysis highlights the important seasonal fluctuations in TEE, energy intake, and body composition in male and female endurance athletes across the training season.
The present review supports the statement of the current position stand of the American College of Sports Medicine ACSM that energy and nutrient requirements are not static and that periodized dietary recommendations should be developed [ 9 ]. Importantly, our analysis again shows the uselessness of self-reported dietary intake, a well-known limitation to energy balance studies, in endurance athletes.
The important underreporting suggested by our analysis again raises the question of whether self-reported energy intake data should be used for the determination of energy intake and illustrates the need for more valid and applicable energy intake assessment methods in free-living humans [ 74 ].
Since we observed a lack of data during the transition phase, future research should focus on the assessment of TEE, energy intake, and body composition on a reduction in training intensity and volume, such as at the end of the competitive season.
In addition, future studies dealing with energy balance and nutrient intake in elite endurance athletes should always mention the time point of data assessments e. Ravussin E, Bogardus C. Relationship of genetics, age, and physical fitness to daily energy expenditure and fuel utilization.
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Eur J Clin Nutr. Subjectively, a sports activity e. soccer can be perceived as very strenuous e. owing to poor fitness. Additionally, a key factor in estimating energy expenditure is knowledge of resting energy expenditure.
This can be determined with an indirect calorimetry, as described above. This is a complicated process, however, and is only rarely applied as a matter of routine.
In general, the resting energy expenditure is thus calculated with available formulas. Although the mean values may generally coincide, there may still be a considerable discrepancy between measured and calculated resting energy expenditure in individual cases 7 , Since the fat-free body mass significantly influences the resting energy expenditure and is generally higher in athletes than non-athletes, it makes sense to use a corresponding calculation formula that takes fat-free body mass into account.
The Cunningham formula is often applied in this respect. However, studies that compare the Cunningham formula with measured resting energy expenditure data show inconsistent results 7 , Additionally, resting energy expenditure varies and may not be considered a fixed quantity.
In some types of sports e. weight-class sports, ski jumping, endurance sports , there are attempts to reduce body mass during selected periods in a season or to keep it low by means of a chronically low energy intake. This can lower resting energy expenditure during the season. However, this effect seems to be cancelled out at the end of the season with correspondingly higher energy intake In some types of sports or disciplines e.
ski jumping, high jump, marathon running , low body weight can provide an advantage in the performance or the regulations may necessitate a certain body weight on the day of the competition. To attain low body weight, athletes tend towards chronically low energy intake or, if possible, an increase in energy expenditure during training 24 , This is often referred to as a negative energy balance as well as low energy availability EA.
Energy Availability is Defined as:. The EA is referred to in kcal per kg of fat-free mass FFM Figure 2 with example 3 and 4. The concept of energy availability is prevalent especially in sports nutrition and refers less to the traditional energy balance; instead it mainly considers the supplied amount of energy minus the energy used during sports.
This results in the amount of energy available to the organism to maintain its basic functions 25 , Low energy availability is also seen as closely related to the development of the Female Athlete Triad. This is a symptom complex related to menstrual cycle disorders, impaired eating behavior and lower bone density in female athletes 12 , This phenomenon has not yet been systematically studied in men, but comparable results may be assumed 9 , 21 , Since low energy availability can occur in both genders, it was suggested that the term Female Athlete Triad be replaced with the term Relative Energy Deficiency in Sports RED-S This is also intended to take into account that low energy availability does not limit itself to bone metabolism and menstrual cycle disorders, but can also have hematological, metabolic, psychological, gastrointestinal, and immunological consequences.
This is associated with negative influences on performance capacity, training adjustment, concentration, coordination, and an increased risk of injury More in-depth information on this topic can be found in the freely accessible review by Nattiv et al.
Risk groups for low energy availability include athletes who deliberately ensure they have low body weight e. weight reduction phase, permanently low body weight or are pressured to maintain low body weight. Low energy availability may also affect athletes who e. It may also be attributable to the fact that hunger is suppressed for sports-related reasons, leading to insufficient energy intake In phases of weight loss, it is important to ensure that energy availability of kcal per kg FFM is guaranteed despite reduced energy intake When applying the concept of energy availability in a consulting practice, it must be kept in mind that information is needed on energy intake, energy expenditure during training as well as data regarding fat-free mass.
The limitations relating to determining energy expenditure are described above. General challenges in determining energy intake through the various nutrition survey systems are not part of this position paper but described in detail elsewhere 6 , 27 , Additionally, in nutrition surveys with athletes, it must be kept in mind that a one-time documentation of diets e.
once per year will lead to a flawed evaluation of the nutritional situation, since energy intake can vary greatly owing to the different levels of exertion in training and competitions. The phenomena of underreporting, underrecording or underestimation and overestimation also occur in this group 6 , 23 , 27 , The significant causes named here include changes in eating behavior during the protocol phase, erroneous statements due to social desirability, and documentation errors in terms of the amount and description of the consumed foods Additionally, the body composition must be measured to obtain information on fat-free mass.
Different results may be obtained depending on the measuring method 1 , however, which, in turn, influences the calculation of energy availability.
Despite the limitations described above, it is recommended that more attention be paid to the topic of energy requirements in sports so that warning signals for low energy availability and the associated negative consequences on health and performance can be detected at an early stage. Depending on the training and competition phase within the yearly cycle, there can be enormous differences in energy requirements of athletes.
In order to monitor their energy Sporte, athletes Caffeine from natures sources desire to anv energy expenditure EE andd Sports and energy expenditure Spotts competition. Recent expenditude advances and increased Caffeine from natures sources interest have created a market for wearable devices that measure physiological energt and Pomegranate Seed Oil movement over prolonged time xnd and convert this information Spors EE data. Expedniture mini-review provides an overview of the applicability of the SenseWear armband SWAwhich combines accelerometry with measurements of heat production and skin conductivity, to measure total daily energy expenditure TDEE and its components such as exercise energy expenditure ExEE in athletic populations. Although limited information is available on the accuracy of the SWA during resistance exercise, high-intensity interval exercise, or mixed exercise forms, there seems to be a similar trend of underestimating high levels of ExEE. The SWA, however, is capable of detecting movement patterns and metabolic measurements even at high exercise intensities, suggesting that underestimation may result from limitations in the proprietary algorithms. In addition, the SWA has been used in the assessment of sleep quantity and quality as well as non-exercise activity thermogenesis.
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