This is known as transient or reactive hypoglycemia , and can be a limiting factor in elite athletes. Individuals susceptible to hypoglycemia are especially at risk for elevated insulin responses and thus will likely suffer from performance-limiting transient hypoglycemia if they do not follow the correct regimen.

The composition of carbohydrates in the athlete's diet during carbohydrate loading is as important as their share of the overall caloric regimen.

Most dietary carbohydrates consist of varying proportions of two simple sugars, glucose and fructose. Fructose may be metabolized into liver glycogen [ citation needed ] , but it is ineffective at raising muscle glycogen levels which is the objective of carbohydrate loading. The classic carb-loading meal is pasta , whose caloric content is primarily due to starch , a polymer of glucose.

Other high-starch meals which include bread , rice , and potatoes are also part of the correct regimen. Contents move to sidebar hide. Article Talk. Read Edit View history. Tools Tools. What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Wikidata item.

These include:. Refined grains. Choose white bread, white rice, or pasta. While whole grains are generally healthier, they're higher in fibre, which can lead to digestive discomfort when consumed in large quantities.

Refined grains, on the other hand, are more easily digested, and are therefore more appropriate to meet the high carb needs during carb loading.

Starchy vegetables. Potatoes and sweet potatoes without skin, as well as taro are some good choices. Fruit juices and canned fruits. These are high in simple sugars which are more carbohydrate-dense than fresh fruit. It is acceptable to include foods and drinks high in refined sugars, such as juices, flavoured milk, canned fruit, and smoothies as part of the diet to meet the high carb needs during the carb loading phase.

Low-fat dairy. Milk, yogurt, and low-fat cheeses provide carbohydrates along with some protein for muscle recovery. Flavoured low-fat milks and yoghurt are a good way to provide lots of carbohydrates in a small volume. If you're interested in learning more about carb loading or are going to go on the diet for an upcoming event, our experienced dietitians can help.

This is a phenomenon that has been rearing its head much more in recent years. Athlete or not, it is important to understand its possible causes. Not everyone who participates in sports knows about the risks involved — until they get hurt.

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Last updated: Thursday, July 13, 8 min reading time. Diane Ashley Seto Ern Dietitian. The practice of carbohydrate loading carb loading is often used by athletes to enhance performance and endurance in their sports events. But is it suitable for everyone?

What is carb loading? What are carbohydrates? Who is carb loading for? What are the benefits of carb loading? How do I practise carb loading? What are common carb loading mistakes? Carb loading can come with several pitfalls that can interfere with its success. These include: Overeating Carb loading doesn't mean you should increase your total daily calories.

Neglecting hydration Do not neglect to consume sufficient fluids prior to an endurance event to ensure that you are adequately hydrated.

Insufficient carb intake Another common mistake is not consuming enough carbohydrates to maximise glycogen stores. Consuming excessive fibre Some athletes consume too much fibre while carb loading, leading to gastrointestinal discomfort.

Choosing the wrong foods Some people make the mistake of consuming high-fibre or fatty foods during their carb loading phase.

Ignoring protein While the focus of carb loading is on carbohydrates, protein should not be completely overlooked. Neglecting to trial during training The days leading up to a race are not the time to try a new dietary strategy.

What are some foods to eat when carb loading? These include: Refined grains. References Burke, L. Clinical sports nutrition. McGraw-Hill Education Australia Pty Ltd. All of the 16 studies provided enough information for a quantitative evaluation used cycling as their exercise mode.

For reason of a better comparability, these studies were assigned to one of four different groups as described in the Methods section.

Study designs with both time and power outcomes where assigned to all applicable groups. Two articles presented their outcomes as work [ 13 , 31 ], which was converted into power prior to analyses by dividing work by the required time. Results for group 1 and 3 were subdivided based on the administered carbohydrate concentrations, results for group 2 and 4 were subdivided based on exercise duration.

Two studies tested the advantage of carbohydrates during a running exercise and were not included into one of the four groups because of considerable physiological differences between this and the other types of exercise [ 28 , 29 ].

In addition, the study by Clarke et al. Subjects were male with the exception of two studies [ 29 , 34 ] enrolling both genders. For each of the four groups, results of both comprehensive as well as subgroup meta-analyses are given in Figs.

Please note that classification into subgroups was performed for every group independent of resulting numbers of studies. Effects of carbohydrate interventions as compared to placebo on time required to finish a time trial.

Subgroup analyses show the results for exercise duration shorter than 90 min or longer than 90 min, respectively. Effects of carbohydrate interventions as compared to placebo on mean power output.

Group 1 included six studies [ 34 — 39 ] with 13 interventions in total. Pooled estimates of the effects size for the effects of carbohydrate interventions as compared to placebo on time required to finish a TT are presented in Fig.

Group 2 included seven studies [ 40 — 46 ] with seven interventions in total. Average cycling time was faster in subjects ingesting carbohydrates as compared to placebo, however, without being statistically significant [mean difference 2. Subgroup analysis including only studies with an exercise duration shorter than 90 min revealed a marginally higher average cycling time in the carbohydrate groups [mean difference 0.

Group 3 included five studies [ 13 , 31 , 37 — 39 ] with nine interventions in total, results of which are summarized in Fig.

Mean power output was significantly more pronounced in participants subjected to a carbohydrate load as compared to placebo [mean difference Group 4 included four studies [ 42 , 45 — 47 ] with four interventions in total.

Meta-analytical data are depicted in Fig. Mean power output turned out to be significantly increased in volunteers following a carbohydrate intervention [mean difference 8. Concerning subgroup analysis, performance tended to be higher in both studies with an exercise duration greater than 90 min [mean difference Based upon the recent systematic review by Colombani et al.

Due to the in-between heterogeneity of trials with respect to study design, we decided to evaluate only studies choosing cycling as the mode of exercise. Moreover, four groups of carbohydrate interventions with respect to test and performance measurement were classified in order to achieve a better comparability of results.

Taken together, all four groups indicated an improved performance following carbohydrate intervention as compared to placebo with differences being statistically significant in group 1 submaximal exercise followed by a time trial measuring time needed to cover a fixed distance or a fixed set amount of work , group 3 submaximal exercise followed by a time trial measuring power W accomplished within a fixed time or distance , and group 4 time trial measuring power W accomplished within a fixed time or distance , respectively.

These findings seem to be in contrast with studies reporting an improved performance via carbohydrate mouth rinsing [ 10 , 48 — 54 ]. It has been suggested that oral receptors within the mouth and the digestive tract sense carbohydrates and activate brain regions associated with reward and pleasure which may lead to enhanced performance [ 5 , 10 , 48 ].

However, most mouth rinse studies were conducted in a fasted state [ 48 , 50 , 52 , 53 ] or had other limitations such as lack of or improper randomization [ 51 , 54 ] or uncertain time of last ingested meal [ 49 ]. In our systematic review, three studies [ 27 , 33 , 38 ] with an exercise duration less than 90 min could not be included in either groups 2 or group 4.

Beelen et al. Likewise, Acker-Hewitt et al. Therefore, it seems premature to finally evaluate the potential benefit of ingesting carbohydrates in short-term exercises less than 90 min , further trials reflecting realistic conditions are necessary. Subgroup analysis of five trials with a duration time higher than 90 min in group 2 resulted in a trend towards a decreased time needed to cover a fixed distance or a fixed set amount of work.

A similar trend could be observed in group 4, albeit with only two trials included in the subgroup. Taking all results under consideration, a performance benefit through carbohydrates might be possible when exercise duration exceeds 90 min.

Irrespective of specific carbohydrate concentrations, meta-analytical results of both groups 1 and 3 yielded statistically significant benefits for carbohydrate supplementation.

In general, this might be due to multiple factors including maintenance of blood glucose [ 55 — 57 ] and high levels of carbohydrate oxidation especially towards the end of exercise [ 58 , 59 ], thus sparing liver glycogen [ 60 — 63 ], as well as a central effect of carbohydrates [ 48 , 52 ].

Therefore, one might speculate an impact of the administered carbohydrate type becoming more effective at higher concentrations. A high dose of ingested carbohydrates while exercising may cause gastrointestinal discomfort [ 64 ] which subsequently may decrease performance [ 65 ].

The protocol of the present systematic review was designed to summarize the available evidence on the ergogenic effects of carbohydrate supplementation as an expansion of the results by Colombani et al.

Moreover, we decided to categorize trials with respect to types of test and performance measurements. This rigid protocol allows for better comparison between the different trials, it is associated with a number of limitations as well.

First of all, the number of studies suitable for meta-analyses turned out to be rather low. All of the 16 trials providing extractable data for meta-analyses used cycling as their exercise mode. Although this might be another aspect increasing the homogeneity of the results, it is not possible to draw any conclusions for other types of exercise such as running.

Data on the content of the last meal prior to trials suggest heterogeneous pre-exercise carbohydrate intake between studies. Another common limitation of performance studies is the only low to average power with respect to the number of participants ranging between 16 and 32 volunteers in the present meta-analyses.

Since only one trial [ 39 ] enrolled subjects with a mean VO 2max that would classify them as elite endurance athletes, the results are most likely not affected by heterogeneity between baseline capacities of study participants. In addition, with the exception of References [ 29 ] and [ 34 ], all trials were performed with male volunteers hampering transfer of results to female athletes.

Following conversion of absolute values into percentage data, results were widely spread yielding improvements in assessed outcomes between 0. This may serve as a potential indicator for the heterogeneous study designs.

Due to lack of sufficient data, it is difficult to extrapolate this result to elite or generally female athletes. Moreover, further research is needed to gain additional information on exercise durations lower than 90 min and in a wider variety of types of exercise. Rodriguez NR, Di Marco NM, Langley S.

American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Nutrition and athletic performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. Article PubMed Google Scholar.

Burke L, Deakin V. Clinical sports nutrition. McGraw-Hill Medical: Sydney; Google Scholar. Correia-Oliveira CR, Bertuzzi R, Dal'Molin Kiss MAP, Lima-Silva AE. Strategies of dietary carbohydrate manipulation and their effects on performance in cycling time trials.

Sports Med. Ormsbee MJ, Bach CW, Baur DA. Pre-exercise nutrition: the role of macronutrients, modified starches and supplements on metabolism and endurance performance. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar.

Burke LM, Maughan RJ. The Governor has a sweet tooth - Mouth sensing of nutrients to enhance sports performance. Eur J Sport Sci. Stellingwerff T, Cox GR. Systematic review: Carbohydrate supplementation on exercise performance or capacity of varying durations. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab.

Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar. Vandenbogaerde TJ, Hopkins WG. Effects of acute carbohydrate supplementation on endurance performance: a meta-analysis. Temesi J, Johnson NA, Raymond J, Burdon CA, O'Connor HT. Carbohydrate ingestion during endurance exercise improves performance in adults.

J Nutr. Cermak NM, van Loon LJC. The use of carbohydrates during exercise as an ergogenic aid. de Ataide e Silva T, de Di Cavalcanti Alves Souza ME, Amorim JF, Stathis CG, Leandro CG, Lima-Silva AE. Can carbohydrate mouth rinse improve performance during exercise?

A systematic review. Article Google Scholar. Colombani PC, Mannhart C, Mettler S. Carbohydrates and exercise performance in non-fasted athletes: a systematic review of studies mimicking real-life.

Nutr J. Currell K, Jeukendrup AE. Validity, reliability and sensitivity of measures of sporting performance. Mitchell JB, Costill DL, Houmard JA, Fink WJ, Pascoe DD, Pearson DR.

Influence of carbohydrate dosage on exercise performance and glycogen metabolism. J Appl Physiol. CAS PubMed Google Scholar.

Jeukendrup A, Brouns F, Wagenmakers AJ, Saris WH. Carbohydrate-electrolyte feedings improve 1 h time trial cycling performance. Int J Sports Med. Hawley JA, Schabort EJ, Noakes TD, Dennis SC. Carbohydrate-loading and exercise performance. An update. Carter JM, Jeukendrup AE, Mann CH, Jones DA.

The effect of glucose infusion on glucose kinetics during a 1-h time trial. Higgins JPT, Thompson SG. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Stat Med. Brockwell SE, Gordon IR.

A comparison of statistical methods for meta-analysis. Coggan AR, Coyle EF. Carbohydrate ingestion during prolonged exercise: effects on metabolism and performance. Exerc Sports Sci Rev. Article CAS Google Scholar.

Jeukendrup AE. Carbohydrate intake during exercise and performance. Schubert MM, Astorino TA. A systematic review of the efficacy of ergogenic aids for improving running performance. J Strength Cond Res.

Carbohydrate feeding during exercise. Coombes JSHKL. The effectiveness of commercially available sports drinks. Wallis GA, Wittekind A. Is there a specific role for sucrose in sports and exercise performance?

Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. Burke LM, Hawley JA, Schabort EJ, St Clair Gibson A, Mujika I, Noakes TD. Carbohydrate loading failed to improve km cycling performance in a placebo-controlled trial. Burke LM, Hawley JA, Angus DJ, Cox GR, Clark SA, Cummings NK, et al.

Adaptations to short-term high-fat diet persist during exercise despite high carbohydrate availability. Beelen M, Berghuis J, Bonaparte B, Ballak SB, Jeukendrup AE, van Loon LJC.

Carbohydrate mouth rinsing in the fed state: lack of enhancement of time-trial performance. Rollo I, Williams C. Influence of ingesting a carbohydrate-electrolyte solution before and during a 1-hour run in fed endurance-trained runners. J Sports Sci.

McGawley K, Shannon O, Betts J. Ingesting a high-dose carbohydrate solution during the cycle section of a simulated Olympic-distance triathlon improves subsequent run performance. Clarke ND, Maclaren DPM, Reilly T, Drust B. Carbohydrate ingestion and pre-cooling improves exercise capacity following soccer-specific intermittent exercise performed in the heat.

Eur J Appl Physiol. Ganio MS, Klau JF, Lee EC, Yeargin SW, McDermott BP, Buyckx M. Effect of various carbohydrate-electrolyte fluids on cycling performance and maximal voluntary contraction.

During this time, athletes consume around g of carbohydrates per kilogram of bodyweight per day. This is followed by a reduction in training intensity or increased rest in the last days leading up to the competition.

One downside to the classic 6-day carb loading method is that the depletion phase can leave athletes feeling fatigued and sluggish. This can negatively impact their training and performance. However, when done correctly, this method can significantly increase an athlete's glycogen stores, leading to improved endurance and performance.

The modified 3-day carb loading method is a variation of the classic 6-day carb loading method. This method involves a shortened depletion phase followed by a high-carbohydrate diet for days. This method is useful for athletes who want an easy and quick carbohydrate boost for their competition without undergoing the long glycogen-depletion phase.

The modified 3-day carb loading method is less intense than the classic 6-day carb loading method, making it a popular choice for athletes who are new to carb loading. However, it may not be as effective at increasing glycogen stores as the classic method. The 1-day carb loading method is a last-minute carb loading technique that can be used for athletes who cannot afford to undergo a longer period of preparation, such as during a multi-day event.

This method involves consuming about g of carbohydrates per kilogram of bodyweight for one whole day prior to the competition. The 1-day carb loading method is not as effective at increasing glycogen stores as the classic 6-day carb loading method. However, it can still provide a quick boost of energy for athletes who need it.

It is important to note that this method should only be used as a last resort and should not be relied upon as the primary carb loading technique.

Each method has its own benefits and drawbacks, and you should choose the method that best suits your individual needs and goals. There are some common mistakes that athletes make when carb loading, which can negatively impact their performance.

While carb loading can be beneficial for many athletes, it is important to understand when it might not be appropriate for your body and your sport. For example, some sports highly rely on strength and power, such as bodybuilding and sprinting.

In such sports, the weight gain that comes with carb loading may be detrimental to performance. One of the biggest mistakes athletes make when carb loading is consuming too many or too little carbohydrates.

Consuming too few carbohydrates during the loading phase may not give you the intended performance bump, while over-consuming carbs may lead to weight gain and sluggishness. It is therefore important to find the right amount of carbohydrates for your body. This will depend on factors such as your body weight, the intensity of your exercise, and the duration of your event.

Find out how to calculate your carb intake further down this article. The carb-loading phase is not the time to experiment with new foods or supplements that the body may not be used to.

New foods can cause discomfort and may affect digestion, which can hinder performance. Stick to familiar foods that you know your body can handle. This will help ensure that you are able to properly digest and absorb the carbohydrates, and that your body is able to use them efficiently during your event.

When carb loading, it is important to balance exercise and rest. The glycogen stores will be severely depleted if there is a lot of exercise undertaken during the preparation and loading period..

Ensure that you allow the muscles to rest and recover during the carb loading phase to allow them to store glycogen.

This will help ensure that you have the energy you need to perform at your best during your event. The amount of carbohydrates that an athlete should consume during carb loading varies with their body weight and the duration of their sports events.

Athletes should prioritise carbohydrates during the carb-loading phase, and be mindful of other macros in their diet. Eating a well-balanced meal with more carbohydrates and lower-fat macronutrients improves recovery time on subsequent training or events.

While increasing carbohydrate intake, athletes should not neglect their fat intake. Healthy fats, such as those found in nuts, seeds, and avocados, are essential for hormone production and overall health.

For example, swapping porridge and nuts to porridge with banana and honey or choosing to snack on malt loaf instead of yoghurt. Overall, carb loading can be a useful tool for endurance athletes looking to improve their performance.

By properly assessing their need for carb loading, calculating their carb intake, and balancing their macronutrients, athletes can optimise their performance during long-duration events.

However, there are numerous ways that you can meet your carbohydrate requirements beyond pasta. For example, bread, rice, noodles, potatoes, loaf cakes and bananas are just some of the options you could consider as part of your carbohydrate loading plan.

The glycaemic index GI determines the effect a certain food has on blood glucose with high-GI foods being broken down much quicker during digestion than low-GI foods and are absorbed by the muscles more effectively [10].

Foods with a high glycaemic load GL have a higher quantity of carbohydrates and together with high GI allow your muscles to efficiently obtain more carbohydrates. A large consumption of high fibre typically low-GI foods can lead to gastrointestinal discomfort.

Choosing foods lower in fibre will help to reduce the risk of developing gastrointestinal discomfort on race day. White potatoes are high-GI and GL and removing the skins reduces the fibre content.

Therefore, mashed potatoes are an ideal choice when carbohydrate loading. Understand audiences through statistics or combinations of data from different sources. Develop and improve services. Use limited data to select content.

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Content is reviewed before publication and upon substantial updates. Medically reviewed by Jonathan Valdez, RDN, CDCES, CPT. Learn about our Medical Review Board. Table of Contents View All. Table of Contents.

Carb Loading. Carb Loading Benefits. Who Should Try Carb Loading. When to Try Carb Loading. How to Carb Load.

Carbohydrate Types. Bodyweight lb Carbs g Total Calories from Carbs lb 1,, lb 1,, lb 1,, What Are Carbs? How to Avoid Hitting the Wall During a Marathon. Food for Carb Loading Apple Bagel Banana Beans Corn Cup of oatmeal English muffin Juice Milk Peas Potatoes Quinoa Slice of bread Sweet potatoes.

How Do Carbs Fuel Exercise? Recovery After Running a Marathon. Verywell Fit uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read our editorial process to learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

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Due to lack of sufficient data, it is difficult to extrapolate this result to elite or generally female athletes. Moreover, further research is needed to gain additional information on exercise durations lower than 90 min and in a wider variety of types of exercise.

Rodriguez NR, Di Marco NM, Langley S. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Nutrition and athletic performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc.

Article PubMed Google Scholar. Burke L, Deakin V. Clinical sports nutrition. McGraw-Hill Medical: Sydney; Google Scholar. Correia-Oliveira CR, Bertuzzi R, Dal'Molin Kiss MAP, Lima-Silva AE.

Strategies of dietary carbohydrate manipulation and their effects on performance in cycling time trials. Sports Med. Ormsbee MJ, Bach CW, Baur DA.

Pre-exercise nutrition: the role of macronutrients, modified starches and supplements on metabolism and endurance performance.

Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. Burke LM, Maughan RJ. The Governor has a sweet tooth - Mouth sensing of nutrients to enhance sports performance. Eur J Sport Sci. Stellingwerff T, Cox GR. Systematic review: Carbohydrate supplementation on exercise performance or capacity of varying durations.

Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar. Vandenbogaerde TJ, Hopkins WG. Effects of acute carbohydrate supplementation on endurance performance: a meta-analysis. Temesi J, Johnson NA, Raymond J, Burdon CA, O'Connor HT. Carbohydrate ingestion during endurance exercise improves performance in adults.

J Nutr. Cermak NM, van Loon LJC. The use of carbohydrates during exercise as an ergogenic aid. de Ataide e Silva T, de Di Cavalcanti Alves Souza ME, Amorim JF, Stathis CG, Leandro CG, Lima-Silva AE. Can carbohydrate mouth rinse improve performance during exercise?

A systematic review. Article Google Scholar. Colombani PC, Mannhart C, Mettler S. Carbohydrates and exercise performance in non-fasted athletes: a systematic review of studies mimicking real-life.

Nutr J. Currell K, Jeukendrup AE. Validity, reliability and sensitivity of measures of sporting performance. Mitchell JB, Costill DL, Houmard JA, Fink WJ, Pascoe DD, Pearson DR.

Influence of carbohydrate dosage on exercise performance and glycogen metabolism. J Appl Physiol. CAS PubMed Google Scholar.

Jeukendrup A, Brouns F, Wagenmakers AJ, Saris WH. Carbohydrate-electrolyte feedings improve 1 h time trial cycling performance. Int J Sports Med. Hawley JA, Schabort EJ, Noakes TD, Dennis SC.

Carbohydrate-loading and exercise performance. An update. Carter JM, Jeukendrup AE, Mann CH, Jones DA. The effect of glucose infusion on glucose kinetics during a 1-h time trial. Higgins JPT, Thompson SG. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Stat Med. Brockwell SE, Gordon IR.

A comparison of statistical methods for meta-analysis. Coggan AR, Coyle EF. Carbohydrate ingestion during prolonged exercise: effects on metabolism and performance. Exerc Sports Sci Rev. Article CAS Google Scholar. Jeukendrup AE. Carbohydrate intake during exercise and performance. Schubert MM, Astorino TA.

A systematic review of the efficacy of ergogenic aids for improving running performance. J Strength Cond Res. Carbohydrate feeding during exercise.

Coombes JSHKL. The effectiveness of commercially available sports drinks. Wallis GA, Wittekind A. Is there a specific role for sucrose in sports and exercise performance? Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.

Burke LM, Hawley JA, Schabort EJ, St Clair Gibson A, Mujika I, Noakes TD. Carbohydrate loading failed to improve km cycling performance in a placebo-controlled trial.

Burke LM, Hawley JA, Angus DJ, Cox GR, Clark SA, Cummings NK, et al. Adaptations to short-term high-fat diet persist during exercise despite high carbohydrate availability.

Beelen M, Berghuis J, Bonaparte B, Ballak SB, Jeukendrup AE, van Loon LJC. Carbohydrate mouth rinsing in the fed state: lack of enhancement of time-trial performance. Rollo I, Williams C. Influence of ingesting a carbohydrate-electrolyte solution before and during a 1-hour run in fed endurance-trained runners.

J Sports Sci. McGawley K, Shannon O, Betts J. Ingesting a high-dose carbohydrate solution during the cycle section of a simulated Olympic-distance triathlon improves subsequent run performance. Clarke ND, Maclaren DPM, Reilly T, Drust B. Carbohydrate ingestion and pre-cooling improves exercise capacity following soccer-specific intermittent exercise performed in the heat.

Eur J Appl Physiol. Ganio MS, Klau JF, Lee EC, Yeargin SW, McDermott BP, Buyckx M. Effect of various carbohydrate-electrolyte fluids on cycling performance and maximal voluntary contraction.

Flynn MG, Michaud TJ, Rodriguez-Zayas J, Lambert CP, Boone JB, Moleski RW. Effects of 4- and 8-h preexercise feedings on substrate use and performance. el-Sayed MS, Rattu AJ, Roberts I. Effects of carbohydrate feeding before and during prolonged exercise on subsequent maximal exercise performance capacity.

Int J Sport Nutr. Campbell C, Prince D, Braun M, Applegate E, Casazza GA. Carbohydrate-supplement form and exercise performance. Cox AJ, Pyne DB, Cox GR, Callister R, Gleeson M. Pre-exercise carbohydrate status influences carbohydrate-mediated attenuation of post-exercise cytokine responses.

Cox GR, Clark SA, Cox AJ, Halson SL, Hargreaves M, Hawley JA, et al. Daily training with high carbohydrate availability increases exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during endurance cycling. Hulston CJ, Jeukendrup AE.

No placebo effect from carbohydrate intake during prolonged exercise. Acker-Hewitt TL, Shafer BM, Saunders MJ, Goh Q, Luden ND. Independent and combined effects of carbohydrate and caffeine ingestion on aerobic cycling performance in the fed state.

Baur DA, Schroer AB, Luden ND, Womack CJ, Smyth SA, Saunders MJ. Glucose-fructose enhances performance versus isocaloric, but not moderate, glucose. Langenfeld ME, Seifert JG, Rudge SR, Bucher RJ.

Effect of carbohydrate ingestion on performance of non-fasted cyclists during a simulated mile time trial. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. Nassif C, Gomes AR, Peixoto GHC, Chagas MH, Soares DD, Silami-Garcia E, et al. The effect of double--blind carbohydrate ingestion during 60 km of self-paced exercise in warm ambient conditions.

PloS One. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar. van Essen M, Gibala MJ. Failure of protein to improve time trial performance when added to a sports drink. Jeukendrup AE, Hopkins S, Aragon-Vargas LF, Hulston C. No effect of carbohydrate feeding on 16 km cycling time trial performance.

Angus DJ, Hargreaves M, Dancey J, Febbraio MA. Effect of carbohydrate or carbohydrate plus medium-chain triglyceride ingestion on cycling time trial performance. Desbrow B, Anderson S, Barrett J, Rao E, Hargreaves M. Carbohydrate-electrolyte feedings and 1 h time trial cycling performance.

PubMed Google Scholar. Hunter AM, St Clair Gibson A, Collins M, Lambert M, Noakes TD. Caffeine ingestion does not alter performance during a km cycling time-trial performance. el-Sayed MS, Balmer J, Rattu AJ. Carbohydrate ingestion improves endurance performance during a 1 h simulated cycling time trial.

Chambers ES, Bridge MW, Jones DA. Carbohydrate sensing in the human mouth: effects on exercise performance and brain activity. J Physiol. Pottier A, Bouckaert J, Gilis W, Roels T, Derave W. Mouth rinse but not ingestion of a carbohydrate solution improves 1-h cycle time trial performance. Scand J Med Sci Sports.

Rollo I, Cole M, Miller R, Williams C. Influence of mouth rinsing a carbohydrate solution on 1-h running performance. Lane SC, Bird SR, Burke LM, Hawley JA. Effect of a carbohydrate mouth rinse on simulated cycling time-trial performance commenced in a fed or fasted state.

Carter JM, Jeukendrup AE, Jones DA. The effect of carbohydrate mouth rinse on 1-h cycle time trial performance. Rollo I, Williams C, Gant N, Nute M. The influence of carbohydrate mouth rinse on self-selected speeds during a min treadmill run.

Sinclair J, Bottoms L, Flynn C, Bradley E, Alexander G, McCullagh S, et al. The effect of different durations of carbohydrate mouth rinse on cycling performance. Erickson MA, Schwarzkopf RJ, McKenzie RD.