Increases cognitive efficiency -
Stress also increased interference from negative evaluation-related stimuli during high load WM performance in individuals with higher trait cognitive test anxiety. These findings are in line with the attentional control theory which posits that anxiety affects cognitive performance by disrupting attentional control, as manifested in interference from negative stimuli [ 14 , 19 ].
The role of threat-interference on stress-induced cognitive impairments is commonly assumed and supported by studies using self-report measures e. This objective assessment of threat-interference is crucial.
Although introspection of cognitive processes is used in various studies, it has limited validity, specifically given the issue of the aforementioned demand characteristics. Even though the L-PAST is likely less subject to this threat to validity because of its obtrusive nature, the objective assessment of threat-interference is especially important as the Cognitive Interference Theory [ 19 ] is so face-valid, even for lay people.
Thus, evidence based on objective assessment is likely firmer than previous studies using only self-report. We also found that trait CPA moderated the effects of stress on cognitive performance, as assessed by RT, and threat-interference during high WM load, as assessed by accuracy.
Specifically, stress resulted in slower responses and higher threat-interference during WM performance for participants with higher trait cognitive test anxiety. These results are in line with previous studies suggesting the importance of both high trait and state anxiety in threat-interference [ 39 , 40 , 70 ] and performance [ 71 , 72 ].
However, previous evidence were not always in relation to acute stress. This is the first study showing that trait CPA moderated both effects in relation to acute stress.
These effects were uniquely explained by trait cognitive test anxiety and not general trait anxiety, as assessed by STAI-t. These results, together with the moderating effect of trait CPA on state anxiety, further support the validity of our stress induction procedure L-PAST. The fact that the individuals in the stress group, who reported to be more worried in performance-evaluative settings, showed higher levels of stress, slower performance during the WM task, and higher interference from negative evaluation-related words strongly suggests that L-PAST, indeed, induces CPA-related stress.
Furthermore, stress affected cognitive performance as assessed by reaction times but not when assessed by accuracy. This is in line with cognitive theories [ 14 , 73 ] supporting the notion that anxiety exacerbates the amount quantity of resources required to reach a certain level of performance rather than the quality of the performance, as indicated by accuracy.
The longer reaction times are explained by the lack of available resources for the task at hand, due to increased worrisome thoughts, induced by the L-PAST. Similarly, there is empirical evidence of the effects of acute stress on n -back performance as assessed by reaction times but not accuracy [ 33 , 74 ].
Other studies, however, found effects of stress on reaction time- and accuracy-based n -back performance e.
Moreover, another study [ 76 ], similarly to our study, did not find an effect of stress, as induced by aversive sounds, on accuracy-based n -back performance, suggesting that the effects of stress on effectiveness were compensated by enhanced motivation and cognitive resources.
The literature thus provides inconclusive empirical evidence. In the present study, trait cognitive test anxiety had a moderating effect on stress-induced threat-interference in terms of accuracy but only in a higher load condition 3-back condition.
This load-specificity is in line with the load theory and its supporting empirical evidence [ 77 , 78 , 79 ] suggesting that higher cognitive load diminishes the resources of cognitive control over goal-relevant information, resulting in increased interference from salient distracters. Stress challenges capacity of cognitive control [ 20 , 21 , 23 ], and it is therefore expected to result in increased interference from salient stimuli when cognitive load is high.
Empirical evidence has previously shown that stress affects WM performance during higher cognitive loads but not when the load is low [ 80 ]. Moreover, pharmacological studies have shown that manipulation of stress-related hormones, resulting in enhanced cognitive control, lead to reduced threat-interference during WM performance, only when cognitive demands are high [ 81 , 82 ].
The lack of threat-interference as assessed by reaction times might be due to the high variability of responses, considering the difficulty of the task.
Nevertheless, the aforementioned cognitive theories i. attentional control theory and cognitive interference theory were developed mainly on the basis of results related to simple cognitive tasks in regards to threat-interference, in which cognitive load was not manipulated.
Threat-interference is traditionally assessed by reaction time tasks such as the emotional Stroop task, in which participants need to name the color of presented words e. Both tasks have been used in the context of CPA e. However, these tasks may be less valid for our research questions as they may be too easy to assess the influence on more complex higher order executive cognition, as might be required for a more ecologically valid approach to the phenomenon of CPA.
Besides, the dot-probe paradigm does not assess interference during performance but rather spatial attention.
Finally, it was observed that significant effects of WM load on RTs and accuracy were non-significant in a model controlling for CTAS and its interactions. This could perhaps suggest that WM load effects are also to some extent dependent on individual differences in trait cognitive test anxiety.
However, since there was no significant interaction between CTAS and WM load, this remains a speculation. In the present study, we developed an n -back task with emotional word distracters with the goal of increasing the ecological validity of the measurement in relation to CPA.
The main advantage of this task is the possibility to manipulate the cognitive load. This could be important considering that the manipulation of cognitive load limits the available cognitive resources for the task at hand, resulting in threat-interference, in accordance with the load theory [ 78 , 79 ].
As expected, we found stress-induced threat-interference only in the condition with higher cognitive load.
As WM memory capacity differs across age, especially the ability to control task-irrelevant information e. Moreover, in the n- back task, we used emotional word-distracters as they share the same modality with worry-related thoughts, and thus they both compete for resources of the phonological loop of WM capacity.
According to Eysenck et al. By using word-distracters, we also managed to use distracters that are thematically relevant to CPA, such as words related to academic performance and negative evaluation. In general, we believe that the L-PAST, in combination with the emotional n -back task, is a valuable method to investigate the effects of stress on cognition, especially in the context of acute CPA.
As expected, the L-PAST increased stress levels compared to the control group, when assessed by subjective and objective measurements. This is in line with a review suggesting that public speaking or verbal interaction tasks that include elements of social evaluation and loss of control are crucial in inducing stress [ 49 ].
The cortisol and heart rate reactivity were limited compared to other studies. This may be explained by the inclusion of participants using a hormonal contraception method or the hormonal cycle, both which are known to affect cortisol response to stress. However, the majority of the current sample used hormonal contraception methods that are known to suppress cortisol reactivity.
Thus, it could be expected that L-PAST would be more effective in a sample of naturally cycling females. Results showed that cortisol levels dropped in the control group from t 1 to t 5 likely due to the diurnal HPA cycle and physiological inactivity; c.
Interestingly, in the stress group cortisol even increased from t 1 to t 3 but was lower again at t 4. Some studies using the TSST stressor seem to report longer lasting HPA increases e. A possible explanation may be that the L-PAST procedure lasts shorter than the TSST. However, one should not over-interpret cortisol changes within the stress group; the crucial outcome is the comparison between groups.
Regarding heart rate activity, even though the effect of L-PAST was not as previously reported for TSST, it should be mentioned that any effect on heart rate was controlled for postural effect. In many TSST studies where participants need to stand during the stress procedure, the participants are seated in the control condition and thus, the reported effects on heart rate may be confounded by posture, unlike in our method.
It is also worth mentioning that heart rate activity is analyzed during performance of our cognitive tasks and not during the stress procedure indicating that participants were stressed during cognitive performance and not just during the stress procedure.
This was also a critical factor in maintaining high stress levels for a longer period of time, up to 60 min after the onset of the stressor. The limited time-window to assess performance under stress is a common practical limitation in studies of acute stress.
In this manner, the L-PAST has the added advantage of assessing the effects on performance of multiple or long-lasting tasks. Another advantage of the L-PAST is that it is easily administered and it can be executed by a single main experimenter.
The main purpose of developing the L-PAST was to create a more ecologically valid state for the evaluation of intellectual performance, such as CPA-related stress.
The results support this by revealing that the effects of the stressor on state performance anxiety were moderated by trait CPA, an effect that remained after the stress booster 45 min after the onset of the stressor.
Specifically, participants with a predisposition to become cognitively anxious in test-related conditions indeed showed higher levels of stress after our stress manipulation.
Importantly, this moderation effect, as well as the moderating effects on WM performance and threat-interference, was uniquely explained by the trait CPA and not trait anxiety STAI-t in general.
These findings are in line with the trait-state anxiety theory and empirical evidence suggesting that individuals with high levels of trait anxiety will experience more stress in a personally threatening situation [ 38 , 95 ].
Similarly, the STAI-t scores of our sample were similar to other student samples e. All in all, the L-PAST is an easily-administered, ecologically-valid standardized lab stressorfor CPA, such as test anxiety the standardized protocol of the L-PAST can be obtained from the authors. Although the present sample of health college-aged females is relevant for the research of C PA and the nature of the L-PAST, as university students are constantly evaluated for their cognitive performance, the main limitation of this study is its external validity.
Even though the present sample was at moderate range of CTAS [ 96 ], it was still consisted by females who are suggested to be more anxious [ 3 , 4 , 56 ]. As a result, our sample might be more susceptible to the stress procedure and the subsequent n -back task.
Nonetheless, it was observed that within the present sample, females with higher CTAS scores are more susceptible to the stress procesure and n -back performance. Furthermore, the phenomenon of CPA occurs at every age and also in clinical populations and thus, the present finding should be investigated in males but also in clinical samples and people of different age range.
Moreover, in the current study, participants were included irrespective of use of contraception method or hormonal cycle which are known to affect cortisol levels in response to stress-induction procedures. In addition, the effects of CPA-related stress on WM performance and threat-interference were stronger for participants with higher CTAS scores.
Future studies should investigate the generalizability of the present findings in individuals preselected for high scores on CTAS or a measure of related construct, such as social anxiety, of which C PA is considered a qualifier [ 97 , 98 ], but also in different populations e.
Furthermore, it would be of interest to test the effect of stress on threat-interference during WM performance with higher cognitive load, as the effect was present only for the higher load condition 3-back and for people with high CTAS scores.
This would further shed light on the role of cognitive load in relation to threat-interference. Moreover, we used an n -back task, measuring WM performance and interference thereon from failure-related words. Use of such objective performance measures can, of course, not prove directly that stress-effects on performance are indeed mediated by interference from those words or distracting thoughts that these may trigger, although this class of methods is generally assumed to measure such effects e.
Ultimately, progress in this field of study probably requires combinations of objective and self-report measures such as thought-probing e. Finally, further research should also focus on the biological mechanisms of CPA-related stress and cognition.
The effects of stress on cognition are partially explained by the glucocorticoid and the noradrenergic system e. Thus, it would be interesting to investigate whether pharmacological interventions, targeting these systems, could prevent the negative effects of CPA on cognition.
In summary, it is concluded that acute CPA-related stress increases interference from negative evaluation during performance while impairing attentional control and WM performance.
Moreover, the present evidence suggests that we have developed a useful experimental method to induce and assess stress-induced cognitive deficits in the context of CPA.
Finally, these results underline the importance of negative cognition, worry over performance or negative evaluation, on the stress-performance relation, and they further highlight the necessity of its objective assessment on the field of C PA.
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Abstract Stress can impair cognitive performance, as commonly observed in cognitive performance anxiety CPA; e. Introduction Almost every person will face many evaluative situations in life where optimal performance is required and where the result may be consequential, such as exams.
Apparatus and materials Heart rate activity. Salivary cortisol levels. N -back task with emotional distracters. Download: PPT. Fig 1. Illustration of the n -back task with emotional word distracters, depicting an example of a 2-back memory-load condition with negative word-distracters.
Procedure All participants were tested individually between p. Statistical analysis T-tests were conducted to investigate potential group differences on background characteristics.
Results No group differences were observed on background characteristics, trait characteristics, or baseline measurements of state anxiety, heart rate activity, and salivary cortisol levels see Table 1. Table 1. Stress-manipulation check Means and post-hoc t -tests are presented in Table 1.
Self-report measures. Objective measures. Fig 3. Effect of the stressor on WM performance RT. Table 2. Moderation analyses for the role of trait CPA on WM performance RT.
Fig 4. Scatterplots for the relationship between CTAS and n -back performance in the control and stress groups. Effect of the stressor on threat-interference RT. Thus, the stress group alone did not affect threat-interference on WM performance. Moderation analyses for the role of trait CPA on threat-interference RT.
Discussion The main goal of this study was to investigate the effects of acute cognitive performance anxiety CPA on objectively assessed cognitive performance and threat-interference. Supporting information. S1 Text. Supplementary materials for items in Dutch and English used in state performance anxiety scale SPAS and state attentional control scale SACS.
The number next to every item represents the presented order. s DOCX. S1 Table. Supplementary materials for detailed report of the two categories of words, in Dutch and their translation in English, used as distracters in the n -back task.
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Behavior research methods. Angelidis A, van der Does W, Schakel L, Putman P. Bishop SJ, Jenkins R, Lawrence AD. gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Cognitive development refers to changes in the brain that prepare people to think and learn.
Just as in early childhood, adolescent brains undergo a lot of growth and development. The brain grows and strengthens itself in three ways:. Growing new brain cells.
Adolescence is one of the few times in which the brain produces many cells at a very fast rate. In fact, the brain creates many more cells than will be needed. The extra brain cells give adolescents more places to store information, which helps them learn new skills.
Pruning some of the extra growth. As adolescents go to school, live, and work, the brain trims down the extra growth based on the parts of the brain the adolescent actively uses. This pruning process creates a brain structure than enables adolescents to easily access the information they use most.
Strengthening connections. The connections between brain cells are what enable the information stored in the brain to be used in daily life. The brain strengthens these connections by wrapping a special fatty tissue around the cells to protect and insulate them.
These changes help adolescents recall information and use it efficiently. As fast as the changes happen, these processes take time. Different sections of the brain develop at different times, with the part of the brain responsible for abstract thinking, planning, and decision making developing last.
Overall, the brain is not fully developed and protected until people are in their mid-twenties. Specifically, young people gain the following advantages as the brain grows, prunes, and strengthens connections:. Enhanced learning. New synapses, or gaps between nerve cells through which impulses are transmitted, make the adolescent brain a learning machine that can absorb facts, ideas, and skills.
Abstract thinking. Young children mostly understand only things that can be seen or touched. They may understand a portion of abstract ideas, such as love, justice, or fractions, but their understanding is of limited scope.
As the brain develops in adolescence, a young person gains a broader understanding of more abstract ideas. Advanced reasoning.
Children have limited reasoning that focuses on the information at hand. In contrast, adolescents can predict the results of their actions by using logic to imagine multiple options and different situations. This new ability helps young people plan for their future and consider how their choices will affect that future.
This practice enables youth to reflect on how they came to an answer or conclusion. This new skill also helps adolescents think about how they learn best and find ways to improve how they absorb new information.
Still, parents and other caring adults should remember that the teen brain is not fully developed. Teens may struggle with impulse control and may be more likely to make decisions based on emotions than on logic. By keeping these issues in mind, adults can provide the support adolescents need as their brains develop.
Cognitive development, much like physical development, happens at a different pace for every adolescent. As a result, adolescents of the same age may not have the same thinking and reasoning skills. Learning styles and multiple intelligences.
Every adolescent learns and processes information in a different way. Adolescents may find that some academic subjects are easier for them to learn or are more interesting than others. Education theories suggest that presenting information and assessing learning in multiple ways helps young people with different learning styles.
Challenges will differ based on the disability, but being aware of the issues can help adults link adolescents to the proper tools and resources for them to thrive.
Furthermore, under the federal law, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act IDEA , K public schools must provide accommodations for students with disabilities, including learning disabilities. College students with disabilities can obtain supports through the Americans with Disabilities Act.
For some adolescents, brain development might be more difficult because of earlier or ongoing trauma. The brain reacts to the environment. Experiencing violence, neglect, or abuse can stunt brain growth. Mental health disorders. Many mental health disorders first appear during adolescence, in part because of changes in physical brain development.
An adolescent struggling with mental health challenges may have decreased motivation and have a harder time with cognitive tasks, such as planning and decision-making. Adults can support adolescents by watching out for mental health warning signs and providing teens who face mental health challenges with treatment.
Substance use. The brain is especially vulnerable to addiction at this stage of life. Use of alcohol, tobacco, and drugs in the teen years is associated with increased risk for adult substance use disorders. In contrast, if teens abstain from certain substances such as tobacco , they are less likely to use these substances as adults.
One of the biggest changes and challenges in adolescence is an increase in risk-taking. Cognitive development during adolescence predisposes young people to take more risks than adults, and taking risks is an important part of growing up. Trying new things gives adolescents the chance to have experiences that will help them make the transition to their independent adult lives, such as finding a career, starting their own family, or moving to new places.
Adults can help protect adolescents from unhealthy risks by being aware of these factors and creating environments that guide young people to healthy choices:. Differing rewards.
Official websites use. gov Increases cognitive efficiency. gov website belongs to an official government organization in Incgeases Increases cognitive efficiency States. gov cognitibe. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Cognitive development refers to changes in the brain that prepare people to think and learn. Just as in early childhood, adolescent brains undergo a lot of growth and development. Cognitiive, which is widely used for enhancing athletic performance, has been suggested Increases cognitive efficiency have Increases cognitive efficiency positive impact Increases cognitive efficiency cognition via stimulating the efficiench. However, no study published cognigive date has cogmitive the effects DKA and insulin pumps different doses of caffeine ingestion on brain activation via cortical hemodynamics. The purpose of the present crossover, double-blind study was to investigate the effects of low, moderate, and high doses of caffeine ingestion on cognitive performance and brain activation. The effects of each treatment condition were evaluated by Stroop tasks before and 60 min after the ingestion of caffeine. Reaction time RT and accuracy of responses to congruent and incongruent stimuli were assessed.
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