Antibacterial material properties -
subtilis for the same QAS concentration; the ratios against E. subtilis for block and terminated QAS-spandex fibers were a Antimicrobial activity of block QAS-spandex fibers at different QAS concentrations.
b Antimicrobial activity of terminated QAS-spandex fibers at different QAS concentrations. c Antimicrobial activity of block QAS-spandex fibers at different contact times.
d Antimicrobial activity of terminated QAS-spandex fibers at different contact times. In addition, the physical performance of QAS-PUs may have a definite correlation with antibacterial activity.
First, the molecular weight can affect the antibacterial activity. It can be seen from Table 1 and Figure 4 a and b that the molecular weight of BAPU 3. Similarly, it also can be shown from Table 1 and Figure 5 a and b that the antibacterial activity of the terminated QAS-spandex fibers with lower molecular weight is greater than that of the block QAS-spandex fibers with higher molecular weight.
The main possible reason is that the TAPU may penetrate into the bacterial cells more easily because of its lower molecular weight. Because the QAS content increased, the hydrophilicity of the APU increased, and the density of the QAS positive charge rose, making the electrostatic interaction and absorption between the APUs and the bacteria strengthen and resulting in the enhancement of the antibacterial activity.
In summary, we synthesized BAPU and TAPU with different content of C12QAS. Their structures were characterized using FTIR and DSC. The viscosity, mechanical properties and water absorption for both APUs were evaluated. The higher the content of QAS in the APUs, the greater the viscosity.
The polyurethanes also showed remarkable mechanical performance and good hydrophilicity. The antibacterial properties of the QAS-polyurethanes and QAS-spandex fibers were investigated by qualitative and quantitative testing.
Both the polyurethanes and spandex displayed excellent antibacterial activities against E. coli, S. subtilis, with the most potent activity against E. The antibacterial ratios against E. coli were Wang, H. Biocidal polyurethane and its antibacterial properties.
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Langmuir 26 , — Download references. We are grateful for the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China No.
ZRBL, ZRBM, GGX, J11LF27 and the Foundation of Yantai No. The Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Prescription Effect and Clinical Evaluation of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, China.
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Chun-Hua Wang or Ju-Feng Sun. Reprints and permissions. Wang, CH. et al. Synthesis, characterization and antibacterial properties of polyurethane material functionalized with quaternary ammonium salt. Polym J 48 , — Download citation.
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Skip to main content Thank you for visiting nature. nature polymer journal original article article. Download PDF. Subjects Diseases Health care. Abstract Novel block antibacterial polyurethane BAPU and terminated antibacterial polyurethane TAPU with N -methyl- N -dodecyl- N,N -bis 2-hydroxyethyl ammonium bromide C12QAS were prepared through pre-polymerization, chain-extending and termination reactions.
Self-healing polyurethane elastomers based on charge-transfer interactions for biomedical applications Article 22 October Polyurethanes containing platinum in the main chain: synthesis, structure and mechanofluorochromism Article 02 August Effect of the cyclic structure content on aliphatic polycarbonate-based polyurethane Article 22 February Introduction Polyurethane PU is a macromolecular polymeric material that exhibits properties between those of common rubber and rigid plastic, and has excellent properties such as wide rigidity, high intensity, oil resistance, ozone resistance, good vibration absorption ability, radio resistance and air permeability resistance.
Figure 1. The structures of BAPU and TAPU. Full size image. Experimental procedure Materials and Methods C12QAS was synthesized according to the literature. Preparation of BAPU Pre-polymerization reaction: BAPU. Preparation of TAPU Termination reaction: TAPU Polyoxytetramethylene glycol M.
Preparation of film A certain amount of antibacterial PU solution was smeared on a glass plate, which was put into water or was left to stand in air after being scratched with another glass plate.
Method of antibacterial-activity testing Method for qualitative testing: inhibition zone method First, a 0. Results and Discussion Structural analysis The APU synthesis procedure was divided into the pre-polymerization reaction, the chain-extending reaction and the termination reaction.
Figure 2. FTIR spectra of C12QAS and PUs a-C12QAS, b-common PU, c-antibacterial PU. Table 1 The molecular weights of APUs Full size table. Figure 3. Table 2 The experimental results of the GTT for the PUs files Full size table. Table 3 The effect of QAS concentrations on the viscosity of PUs Full size table.
Table 4 The mechanical properties of PUs the unit of force, cN Full size table. Table 5 The diameters of the inhibition zone of APUs Full size table. Therefore, if the antimicrobial action requires the production of ROS, the use of materials which fall outside of this range is not recommended.
LDMs that have demonstrated antimicrobial activity and are capable of generating ROS species in solution include BP 70 , MXene and WS 2 However, there are also LDMs that do not generate ROS, but is still possess antimicrobial activity such as 2D hBN , which has limited antibacterial efficiency 90 , For such materials, forming composites or heterostructures can alter their intrinsic bandgaps, and facilitate the generation of ROS , In some systems, the generation of ROS can be promoted via the addition of ultra-low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide 81 , For example, BP is well known to degrade under ambient atmosphere and solution conditions, producing ROS and P x ions , The ability for the material to both degrade and produce antimicrobial species is useful for applications which require the biocidal agent to disintegrate from the treatment zone without removal.
Other LDMs degrade at a slower rate, such as In 2 Se 3 , and have also shown potential antimicrobial activity This degradation or generation of ROS can also be enhanced using light irradiation 35 , LDMs that have demonstrated photocatalytic properties can potentially be used to assist with targeted treatments The morphology, size, surface charge and flexibility of LDMs can positively and negatively correlate to biocidal enhancement in both suspension-based and surface-based technologies.
Broadly, the degree of antimicrobial activity within a system is both species and treatment dependent and represents an interplay between contributing factors. However, the precise nature of the LDM-microbial interactions is still relatively poorly understood, often resulting in conflicting results, even amongst similar systems.
The following section aims to collate the current level of understanding of the morphological and physicochemical interactions which facilitate LDM antimicrobial action. For 0D materials, cellular uptake, electrostatic disruption, and specific cell—surface interactions are the primary physical modes of action.
Here, the comparatively small size of the material facilitates cellular uptake, which is often not achieved by larger 1D and 2D materials.
This means that the physical size and surface chemistry of the material is a key determining factor. If an application requires intracellular interactions, then 0D materials are prime antimicrobial candidates - smaller 0D LDMs can possess enhanced activity Further, 0D materials are known to facilitate intra- and extracellular damage via unfavourable electrostatic interactions.
However, we found no reports of 0D LDMs that cause physical-based membrane rupture. For 1D and 2D materials, the aspect ratio can influence the antimicrobial activity For CeO 2 NRs, a higher aspect ratio resulted in more active sites on the NR surface, generating a higher concentration of hypobromous acid HOBr , increasing the antimicrobial activity The aspect ratio can also be linked to the cytotoxicity of a material For some materials, a higher aspect ratio increases the toxicity towards human cells Several forces are at play when LDMs and microbes interact, including electrostatic, van der Waals and hydrophobic forces.
Together, these forces can lead to microbial membrane damage during LDM material interactions. It should be noted that LDM-pathogen interactions are complex, possessing contributions from both the material and the microbial cell.
For instance, the surface chemistry, charge, hydrophobicity, inherent roughness, geometry and free energy are all contributing factors from the LDM material. For the pathogen, molecular composition, surface charge, hydrophobicity, extracellular polymeric substance EPS and cell appendage interactions all play a role.
In general, it has been suggested that positively charged materials attach to the negatively charged microbial membrane to induce membrane damage 45 , Some materials can deactivate membrane components, such as the thiol group, through the generation of ions 41 , or by extracting of phospholipids 62 , Ions are typically generated by MOs, which cause the leakage of intracellular components 39 , 79 or directly damage the intracellular components One application for LDMs is in preventing microbial infections i.
pre-infection treatment via limiting microbial adhesion to surfaces 26 , and decreasing microbial growth 32 , For LDMs to be used as an effective pre-infection treatment, they will need to be in a portable form with long-term stability, such as a bandage or implant coating or LDMs suspended in hydrogel 95 , External stimuli can be applied to prevent infections in a clinical setting but are not practical for consumer products.
Similarly, the chemical stability of LDMs must be improved for commercial products as they will need to be stored for longer periods. Overall antimicrobial activity is another important property to consider when using LDMs for pre-infection treatments.
Materials, such as BP NSs 45 and g-C 3 N 4 QDs , can be used as fast-acting treatments, while other materials including 0D MOs 41 , and MXene NSs have shown antimicrobial activity over several days. This duration is important as it influences the frequency of treatments, and how often the wound is exposed to unsterile conditions, increasing the risk of re-infection.
Once an infection has formed, it can become much harder to treat and prevent more entrenched infection , The use of stimuli-activated LDMs, such as photothermal 75 or photoactivation 35 could be utilised within clinical settings. Importantly, LDMs have the ability to treat established infections with large quantities of microbial cells , One method of achieving this higher microbial inactivation can be the use of external stimuli, such as light activation , Following the initial treatment to reduce the infection, previously discussed pre-infection treatments can be used in tandem to help prevent another infection.
Computational modelling techniques have demonstrated great potential to aid in the understanding of existing antimicrobial mechanisms and guide development of new LDMs.
Classical molecular dynamics MD simulations have been used to show in atomistic detail how GO, N-g-C 3 N 4 and MoS 2 nanosheets can destructively extract lipids from bacterial membranes 62 , 63 , 99 Fig.
In addition, coarse-grained MD simulations allow for a direct and fast in silico screening of LDMs candidate materials MD simulations have also shown why some LDMs are effective in vitro but not in vivo.
For example, Duan et al. demonstrated that the efficacy of GO as an antimicrobial agent was significantly reduced by the presence of a protein corona formed by serum proteins that reduced the available surface area and sterically hindered membrane penetration and disruption On the other hand, MD simulations have also shown how the effects of a protein corona can be overcome, or even utilised advantageously, for cell penetration of functionalized nanoparticles While MD simulations are useful for studying interactions that can occur between LDMs and microbial membranes or biofilms , , quantum chemical QC methods can calculate bandgaps of candidate LDMs , , or examine the reaction mechanisms involved in ROS generation.
Taking BP as an example, while the full ROS production reaction mechanism has yet to be elucidated, studies have shown that initial reactions leading to ROS production and BP degradation are most likely to occur at edges and defects in BP 17 , Fig.
For the rapid and efficient exploration of a large number of candidate LDM properties, machine learning ML is often the best approach.
ML algorithms can predict properties ranging from bandgaps of MXenes and hybrid 2D materials , to biocompatibility of ZnO nanoparticles a Lipid extraction by graphene oxide nanosheets from the outer membrane surface b Top view and side view of the reaction of O 2 red with monovalent defect BP purple from QC calculations.
These materials include hBN NSs , WS 2 QDs 84 , BP QDs 21 and graphene NSs Some morphologies of these materials have demonstrated higher antimicrobial efficiency. This reduced antimicrobial activity is likely due to hBN not generating ROS, which means it is more reliant on a physical rather than a chemical mechanism which limits the overall antimicrobial potential , A careful review of the literature reveals the several QDs have lower antimicrobial activity compared to their 1D or 2D counterparts.
The medium of the LDMs can also influence the antimicrobial efficiency. MOs have an increased antimicrobial potential on a surface 12 , , where most 0D materials are more effective as a suspension 72 , For LDMs that rely on chemical interaction, suspension-based approaches have a higher antimicrobial efficiency 72 , In contrast, physical-based antimicrobial mechanisms are efficient as both surface- and suspension-based treatments, depending on the desired application 23 , For water purification, membranes equipped with LDMs are more effective than LDMs freely suspended in solution, and do not have to be removed from the purified water 27 , For wound treatments, however, depositing LDMs onto traditional wound dressing surfaces, such as bandages or adhesive resins, have shown to promote improved wound healing compared to untreated dressings 75 , Although LDMs have promising antimicrobial properties, there are still limitations in fabrication processes and scalability that prevents practical implementation, for instance;.
Synthesis methods for LDMs often use toxic solvents 87 , , require prolonged synthesis at high temperatures 18 , and result in low yields 25 , Many 1D nanostructures, aside from MOs and GO, have only recently been synthesised and currently lack exploration into possible antimicrobial activity 18 , Some LDMs are less stable in desired environments such as in air or in solutions with a neutral pH 25 , One of the significant concerns using LDMs within a medical and commercial setting are related to their fabrication.
Although LDMs should be available for feasible consumer products, consistent, cost-efficient methods need to be developed to allow for batch production. Major challenges to resolve for LDMs to attain market growth include 1 scalability, especially roll-to-roll manufacturing, 2 repeatable and reliable fabrication methods, 3 low contact resistance and 4 LDM-based precise characterisation techniques.
One key point to a favourable outcome is the capability to prepare 2D materials at the wafer level. In this way, it will be possible to create large amounts of 2D devices for fabrication and decrease product cost The current use of either high temperatures or toxic solvents 18 , has led to an increased interest in developing green synthesis routes using natural materials for LDMs fabrication 40 , 82 , increasing the potential for wider biomedical applications.
Several current fabrication processes can take several days 15 , 47 , and long-term storage can be limited 24 , One method of overcoming the rapid degradation of LDMs is to suspend the LDMs in liquid stabilisers or through storage in controlled environments 35 , For example, some materials require a specific pH for storage of more than a few weeks, which is not ideal for biomedical applications 35 , Although these stabilising measures are effective within a controlled laboratory setting, implementation on a larger scale for practical use is limited.
For clinical applications, stabilisation could be achieved by embedding LDMs in medically relevant materials currently being used as wound treatments, such as hydrogels The scalability and long-term impacts of LDMs on biological systems still require more research.
There have been some cytotoxicity studies for a range of LDMs but these are predominantly carried out using in vitro cell cultures or mouse models 81 , However, the method of excretion of LDMs from vital organs and the potential risks posed by LDMs aggregating within the body still needs to be examined futher , Within the published literature, most LDMs have only been tested against a few key bacterial strains.
The most common models are S. aureus for Gram-positive and E. coli for Gram-negative bacteria, which are human pathogens capable of significant morbidity and have several documented drug-resistant strains 48 , Often in biological studies, fungal cells are overlooked, even though they pose a similar health threat 5.
This is important as fungal cells are larger than bacteria cells and possess different membrane structures and hence can be impacted differently by the antimicrobial mechanisms generated by LDMs For example, if biofilm prevention is tested, typically only single strain models are used with limited testing on biofilms containing multiple bacterial strains, which are common on implant-associated infections LDMs 1 , 35 , 45 , utilise a combination of chemical and physical modes of action to kill pathogenic microbes with extremely high efficacy in a range of conditions.
Combining this with the emerging capability to control the properties of LDMs offers an unprecedented opportunity for the research community to explore a plethora of potential antimicrobial applications.
Furthermore, the synthesis of composites LDMs which can have synergistic effects provides the basis to create new paradigms in a field of antimicrobials, which has stagnated to a dangerous point 24 , Importantly, there is a lot more work that needs to be done.
Many facets of the antimicrobial mechanisms of LDMs remain unclear, and the library of prospective materials should be expanded.
Further, the clinical and commercial applications of these materials remain under researched. Such areas of research need to be further investigated for LDMs to be considered a serious alternative to current antimicrobial treatment strategies. It is hoped that this review will provide a foundation for informed decisions and design parameters of next-generation antimicrobial LDMs with antipathogenic activity and reveal an antipathogenic technology capable of combatting AMR pathogens.
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