Electrolyte balance control -
An absolute loss of potassium can arise from decreased intake, frequently related to starvation. It can also come about from vomiting, diarrhea, or alkalosis. Some insulin-dependent diabetic patients experience a relative reduction of potassium in the blood from the redistribution of potassium.
When insulin is administered and glucose is taken up by cells, potassium passes through the cell membrane along with glucose, decreasing the amount of potassium in the blood and IF, which can cause hyperpolarization of the cell membranes of neurons, reducing their responses to stimuli.
Hyperkalemia , an elevated potassium blood level, also can impair the function of skeletal muscles, the nervous system, and the heart. Hyperkalemia can result from increased dietary intake of potassium.
In such a situation, potassium from the blood ends up in the ECF in abnormally high concentrations. This can result in a partial depolarization excitation of the plasma membrane of skeletal muscle fibers, neurons, and cardiac cells of the heart, and can also lead to an inability of cells to repolarize.
Because of such effects on the nervous system, a person with hyperkalemia may also exhibit mental confusion, numbness, and weakened respiratory muscles. Chloride is the predominant extracellular anion. Chloride is a major contributor to the osmotic pressure gradient between the ICF and ECF, and plays an important role in maintaining proper hydration.
Chloride functions to balance cations in the ECF, maintaining the electrical neutrality of this fluid. The paths of secretion and reabsorption of chloride ions in the renal system follow the paths of sodium ions.
Hypochloremia , or lower-than-normal blood chloride levels, can occur because of defective renal tubular absorption. Vomiting, diarrhea, and metabolic acidosis can also lead to hypochloremia. Hyperchloremia , or higher-than-normal blood chloride levels, can occur due to dehydration, excessive intake of dietary salt NaCl or swallowing of sea water, aspirin intoxication, congestive heart failure, and the hereditary, chronic lung disease, cystic fibrosis.
In people who have cystic fibrosis, chloride levels in sweat are two to five times those of normal levels, and analysis of sweat is often used in the diagnosis of the disease. Watch this video to see an explanation of the effect of seawater on humans. What effect does drinking seawater have on the body?
Bicarbonate is the second most abundant anion in the blood. This role will be discussed in a different section. Bicarbonate ions result from a chemical reaction that starts with carbon dioxide CO 2 and water, two molecules that are produced at the end of aerobic metabolism.
Only a small amount of CO 2 can be dissolved in body fluids. Thus, over 90 percent of the CO 2 is converted into bicarbonate ions, HCO 3 — , through the following reactions:.
The bidirectional arrows indicate that the reactions can go in either direction, depending on the concentrations of the reactants and products. Carbon dioxide is produced in large amounts in tissues that have a high metabolic rate.
Carbon dioxide is converted into bicarbonate in the cytoplasm of red blood cells through the action of an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase.
Bicarbonate is transported in the blood. Once in the lungs, the reactions reverse direction, and CO 2 is regenerated from bicarbonate to be exhaled as metabolic waste.
About two pounds of calcium in your body are bound up in bone, which provides hardness to the bone and serves as a mineral reserve for calcium and its salts for the rest of the tissues.
Teeth also have a high concentration of calcium within them. A little more than one-half of blood calcium is bound to proteins, leaving the rest in its ionized form. In addition, calcium helps to stabilize cell membranes and is essential for the release of neurotransmitters from neurons and of hormones from endocrine glands.
Calcium is absorbed through the intestines under the influence of activated vitamin D. A deficiency of vitamin D leads to a decrease in absorbed calcium and, eventually, a depletion of calcium stores from the skeletal system, potentially leading to rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults, contributing to osteoporosis.
Hypocalcemia , or abnormally low calcium blood levels, is seen in hypoparathyroidism, which may follow the removal of the thyroid gland, because the four nodules of the parathyroid gland are embedded in it.
Hypercalcemia , or abnormally high calcium blood levels, is seen in primary hyperparathyroidism. Some malignancies may also result in hypercalcemia. Phosphate is found in phospholipids, such as those that make up the cell membrane, and in ATP, nucleotides, and buffers. Hypophosphatemia , or abnormally low phosphate blood levels, occurs with heavy use of antacids, during alcohol withdrawal, and during malnourishment.
In the face of phosphate depletion, the kidneys usually conserve phosphate, but during starvation, this conservation is impaired greatly. Hyperphosphatemia , or abnormally increased levels of phosphates in the blood, occurs if there is decreased renal function or in cases of acute lymphocytic leukemia.
Additionally, because phosphate is a major constituent of the ICF, any significant destruction of cells can result in dumping of phosphate into the ECF. Sodium is reabsorbed from the renal filtrate, and potassium is excreted into the filtrate in the renal collecting tubule. The control of this exchange is governed principally by two hormones—aldosterone and angiotensin II.
Figure 1. Recall that aldosterone increases the excretion of potassium and the reabsorption of sodium in the distal tubule. Aldosterone is released if blood levels of potassium increase, if blood levels of sodium severely decrease, or if blood pressure decreases.
Its net effect is to conserve and increase water levels in the plasma by reducing the excretion of sodium, and thus water, from the kidneys. In a negative feedback loop, increased osmolality of the ECF which follows aldosterone-stimulated sodium absorption inhibits the release of the hormone.
Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction and an increase in systemic blood pressure. Angiotensin II also signals an increase in the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex.
In the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of the kidneys, aldosterone stimulates the synthesis and activation of the sodium-potassium pump.
Sodium passes from the filtrate, into and through the cells of the tubules and ducts, into the ECF and then into capillaries. Water follows the sodium due to osmosis.
Thus, aldosterone causes an increase in blood sodium levels and blood volume. Figure 2. Angiotensin II stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex. Calcium and phosphate are both regulated through the actions of three hormones: parathyroid hormone PTH , dihydroxyvitamin D calcitriol , and calcitonin.
All three are released or synthesized in response to the blood levels of calcium. PTH is released from the parathyroid gland in response to a decrease in the concentration of blood calcium. The hormone activates osteoclasts to break down bone matrix and release inorganic calcium-phosphate salts. PTH also increases the gastrointestinal absorption of dietary calcium by converting vitamin D into dihydroxyvitamin D calcitriol , an active form of vitamin D that intestinal epithelial cells require to absorb calcium.
PTH raises blood calcium levels by inhibiting the loss of calcium through the kidneys. Protein Buffer System. Physiological Buffer Systems.
Renal Mechanisms of Acid-Base Balance. Reabsorption of Bicarbonate. Generating New Bicarbonate Ions. Hydrogen Ion Excretion. Ammonium Ion Excretion. Bicarbonate Ion Secretion.
Respiratory Acidosis and Alkalosis. Respiratory Acid-Base Regulation. Metabolic pH Imbalance. Acid-base imbalance due to inadequacy of a physiological buffer system is compensated for by the other system. Main Page. Associate Degree Nursing Physiology Review.
Fluid Shifts If ECF becomes hypertonic relative to ICF, water moves from ICF to ECF If ECF becomes hypotonic relative to ICF, water moves from ECF into cells. Regulation of Water Output Obligatory water losses include: Insensible water losses from lungs and skin Water that accompanies undigested food residues in feces Obligatory water loss reflects the fact that: Kidneys excrete mOsm of solutes to maintain blood homeostasis Urine solutes must be flushed out of the body in water Primary Regulatory Hormones 1.
Antidiuretic hormone ADH also called vasopressin Is a hormone made by the hypothalamus, and stored and released in the posterior pituitary gland Primary function of ADH is to decrease the amount of water lost at the kidneys conserve water , which reduces the concentration of electrolytes ADH also causes the constriction of peripheral blood vessels, which helps to increase blood pressure ADH is released in response to such stimuli as a rise in the concentration of electrolytes in the blood or a fall in blood volume or pressure.
These stimuli occur when a person sweats excessively or is dehydrated. Sweating or dehydration increases the blood osmotic pressure. The increase in osmotic pressure is detected by osmoreceptors within the hypothalamus that constantly monitor the osmolarity "saltiness" of the blood 3.
ADH travels through the bloodstream to its target organs : a. Sodium balance. The thyroid gland releases calcitonin CT. CT binds to receptors on osteoblasts bone-forming cells. This triggers the osteoblasts to deposit calcium salts into bone throughout the skeletal system.
This causes the blood calcium levels to fall. CT stops being produced when blood calcium levels return to normal. When blood calcium levels fall, the parathyroid glands located on posterior surface of the thyroid gland release PTH.
PTH binds to receptors on osteoclasts bone-degrading cells within the skeletal system The osteoclasts decompose bone and release calcium into the blood.
The blood calcium level rises PTH stops being produced when blood calcium levels return to normal. Normal pH of body fluids: Arterial blood is 7.
Challenges to acid-base balance due to cellular metabolism: produces acids — hydrogen ion donors Acidosis physiological acidosis is a blood pH below 7.
Its principal effect is depression of the central nervous system by depressing synaptic transmissions Alkalosis is a blood pH above 7.
Potassium and sodium Virtual energy refuel balace that help your body function normally Consistent power optimization maintaining fluid and blood Electrolytf. However, consuming too little potassium cotnrol too much sodium can Balace your blood pressure. Sodium is a Electrolyte balance control, and one of the chemical elements found in salt. Most potassium we eat naturally occurs in vegetables, fruit, seafood, and dairy products. On the other hand, most sodium we eat is added to packaged and restaurant foods. Increasing potassium intake can help decrease your blood pressure if you have high blood pressure. By lowering blood pressure, increasing potassium intake can also reduce your risk for heart disease and stroke. Balnace include Balamce we think are useful for our Virtual energy refuel. Liver detoxification for mental clarity you buy through links on this Electrolye, we may earn a small commission. Healthline only shows you brands and products that we stand behind. Athletes have been swigging electrolyte replenishers since That was the year a Florida Gators coach asked doctors why his players were wilting so quickly in the heat. Their answer? The players were losing too many electrolytes.
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